Head Chef Essay Example for Free

Head Chef Essay If I wasn’t told to choose a career now, I wouldn’t have. Although I’ve had the question â€Å"what do you want to be when you grow up† constantly in the back of my mind for the past 4 years, I never really came up with a definite answer. Last September I started the culinary arts program at the North Olympic Peninsula Skills Center and since then I’ve realized that I really enjoy cooking so I started to consider being a chef as a career. In order to become an executive or head chef you must have a relevant education, training, and be willing to work hard. With all these attributes getting a position as a chef in a nice restraint is not difficult, and is very rewarding. After doing much research and talking to a few chefs I found out that higher education is not required to become a head chef, but it wouldn’t hurt either. Many people considering becoming a chef as a career decided to go to a culinary college. One of the most well-known culinary institutes is the Culinary Institute of America in Hyde Park, New York. A full academic year at the CIA in 2011-2012 cost $39,440 (CCIA). There is no GPA requirement in order to apply to the CIA but you must have your high school diploma. According to the CIA’s web site before you can start classes it is required that â€Å"you gain relevant experience in one of two ways before enrolling: by working in a non-fast food establishment with a professional kitchen for six months or by completing culinary classes at either the high school or college level† (AR). Although education is important, proper training is even more essential. Some training a chef is expected to have are knife skills, food preparation and sanitation. Training of a chef usually consists of an internship, apprenticeship, or externship, during which time the aspiring chef will work in all areas of the kitchen, mastering all aspects of food preparation. Many culinary colleges have an internship program in place to experience the culinary industry while gaining skills and on the job experience. On top of education and training if you expect to go far as a chef there are certain skills you should have such as; high stamina, organization, flexibility, teamwork, customer focus, and the desire to learn (SPCTP). Chefs work really long days under high pressure and should be able to maintain a clear mind and continue to be productive. A really big part of being a chef has to do with the customers; after all, without them you wouldn’t have a job. â€Å"A good chef knows that customers want fresh, delicious food that’s presented attractively, and does his or her best to make sure that happens for every customer that enters the restaurant† (SPCTP). I did my job shadow with the head chef, Julie, at St. Andrews Place in Port Angeles, WA. When I asked her what the most important skill needed to be good at her job was she said, besides from knowing how to cook, time management. Having been in the culinary arts program and experiencing the pressure of getting done to get what needs to be done, I agree. Time management is a very important skill to have in the culinary industry. Most high schools have a culinary program that you could attend in order to obtain these skills, or you could simply learn through on the job training. A typical day for a head chef is different than that of an executive chef. An executive chef works in more of an office style; leading other chefs, doing more meal planning, and a lot of paperwork. Executive chefs are hardly on the line cooking except occasionally during dinner rush. Head chefs may be involved with the meal planning and some paper work but mostly work in the kitchen the majority of the time. Being a chef means working mornings, nights, weekends, and holidays. â€Å"Depending on the size of the restaurant or establishment, a head chef may arrive as early as 9 a.m. to begin planning the day’s menus and not leave until the dinner rush is over, sometimes at 10 p.m. or 11 p.m. Most chefs work at least 12-hour days and many times six days a week† (Buchan). Not only is the workday long, but the work itself is hard as well; almost the whole day is spent walking or standing. In order to be a chef you have to love what you do. â€Å"Passion. This is what is going to make all the sacrifice, low pay, and long hours worth it. You have to have a defined, passionate goal; something you want to work towards. And you need to have passion about food and someday being a professional chef. Without true passion, you will never succeed in a restaurant kitchen†. (WIAPK) Being a chef can be a very stressful job and take quite a mental toll as well as physical. Although the work is difficult, the rewards are well worth it. The level of pay for head chefs varies depending on where you work and who you work for. Those who get paid most often work in upscale restaurants and hotels. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, â€Å"the median annual wage of chefs and head cooks was $40,630 in May 2010. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,260, and the top 10 percent earned more than $70,960† (CHCP). â€Å"Seventy percent of chefs working for employers reported receiving health care benefits: 69 percent received medical care, 51 percent received dental care and 36 percent received vision care† (SBC). This does not apply to self-employed chefs. Although the pay is decent, if you are going to pursue a career as a chef you shouldn’t do it simply for the money. Being a chef has personally gratifying rewards as well as financial, such as the satisfaction you feel when people love the food you’ve created. The culinary industry is only expected to grow 14% in all occupations between now and 2020 (CHCJO). Although the projected growth isn’t a lot, the culinary industry is always in need of new employees. I feel like this would be a good fit for me because I have many of the skills needed to be successful in the industry already. I have been learning these skills though the Culinary Arts program I have been taking at the North Olympic Skills Center. I have been exposed to customer service, knife skills, food preparation, sanitation, HACCP logs, dish-pit, and have been told by my instructor that I have great time management skills. As you can see, with a proper education, training, and hard work, a career as a chef can be an extremely rewarding experience. The preparation of food is not only a job that satisfies peoples hunger, it is also an art, and the chefs are the artists.

Using Alternative Materials In A Racing Car Engineering Essay

Using Alternative Materials In A Racing Car Engineering Essay Materials play a very important role in functioning of any Machine. The idea of using alternative materials in a racing car is often an option used by the designers to improve the overall performance of the car. But the growing research on new materials creates confusion for the Racing car designers. The failure of material plays the most significant role in any kind of loss in a racing car. Engineers design the car and select the material in such a way that, the materials is able to cope with all the forces acting on the car and also weigh as less as possible. The overall weight of the car is dependent on the properties of the materials. In this report an effort is made to identify these materials used in the current Formula 1 cars and suggest alternatives, which shall provide us a solution for the material selection criteria considering the cost, availability, environmental effect in manufacturing parts from this materials and also end of life issues of these materials. In this rep ort we are going to review the work done till the end of May on this project. An overview of the current materials used and the reasons for the selection materials for the various components of the formula 1 car is briefly described in this report. Introduction: Formula 1 is one of the most rapidly developing sport, as far as research and development is concerned. New technologies are discovered and used on the car every year in order to win the races. Materials are also an option for the designers to get the weight distribution of the car as desired. The weight of the car is dependent on the materials used for construction. FIA has its regulations on the minimum weight of the car that is 605 kg for the 2010 season. But using exotic materials designers can design the car for about 450 500 kgs. And the rest is used by ballast for improving the weight distribution of the car. Materials selection for a formula 1 car is one of the most significant decisions for the designer. It also reflects the sustainability of the materials with respect to environmental concerns. The four main factors upon which the designers relies when considering materials choice are the relationship between materials specifications and technical performance of the product, the economic performance of the product, the environmental performance of the product the practice of industrial design embedded in the product and its Functionality as told by Clark and Ashby. In formula 1 because of the high budgets the economic issue is not really big atleast with the major teams. Thus the designer has the liberty to use as exotic material as he wants for achieving the minimum weight of the car. Critical components such as engine, suspension, brakes, and wheels play a major part in the performance of the car. The materials to be selected for these components need a deep research on the forces and temperatures achieved in these parts. Reducing the overall weight of the car is not difficult. Designers achieve the overall weight of the car well below the minimum specified FIA limit. The main achievement for the designers is to get the overall weight distribution. But apart from these performance issues there are many other issues which need directive. FIA has banned certain materials such as non ferrous alloys and Berillium alloys for Health and Safety requirements. But because F1 is a glamorous sport with high budgets and speed, environmental concern due to materials used is least analysed. It is very important, that the materials to be used in the sport should be environmental friendly considering the LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS, RECYCLING and THE AVAILABLITY OF THE MATERIALS IN FUTURE, etc. In this project an effort is made to analyse the current materials used with respect to these environmental issues and suggest alternatives. This project particularly aims at the F1 industry for the selection of alternative materials for specific components which can benefit them further. Use of CES software will be done, which is industry Standard software to select materials depending on their particular application of components. Although this project is more of a research project the outcomes from the project can be used for future F1 industry and also to the high end Motor industry as well as other motorsport sectors. The project aims at providing industry relevant solutions via research on the current materials being used and also on the future materials that can be used. With the help of the CES software we will be trying to find materials which can meet the requirements of the components and then with literature obtained from the books and journals we shall try to figure out the best possible materials for the use. Objectives: The Objectives of the project are shown below. Identification of some of the most critical parts in an F1 car. The functions of each critical component analysed in the car. Find the materials currently used for each component in the F1 industry. Use CES package based on function of component to determine alternative material for the same purpose. Evaluate materials against existing materials in terms of performance, cost and manufacturing feasibility, end of life issues and recycling. To produce a report that can act as a reference for selection of materials for F1 applications. Background: Formula 1 is the only automotive sport which brings revolutionary changes to the field of automotive racing. Over a period of years Formula1 has provided numerous technologies and advances in the field. The use of light weight aluminium back in 1970s to use of Carbon fibre in mid 1980s in the field of automotive racing, all was introduced by Formula 1. Thus it can be said that Formula 1 has a big influence over the automotive industry in terms of technologies. But sometimes, certain advantages can be gained similarly at a fairly less cost or by using materials which causes less damage to the environment. Also there is further a scope for the designers to further improve their car based on the performance provided by the materials used to make the car. Structure of report: In this report we will be covering the topics finished by now and a brief discussion of the work to be done in near future. Every topic of the report shall cover the objectives in parts. The critical parts of the car, their function and the materials currently used have been finished till now. These topics will be further explained in details. 2.0. Literature Review: 2.1. Introduction: F1 is developing rapidly, with increasing competition for higher performance and energy efficiency, new materials and processing techniques are required to underpin these developments. [5]. and also because of the industrial recession the competition has further intensified and the importance of selection of materials has grown even further more. The need for recognition of function of a component in order to provide the most technically advanced as well as economic means of meeting this functional requirements is becoming more vital, so that there can be a better communication between the design engineer and materials engineer. [4]. in todays world we have more materials then even before and thus the scope of innovation is immense. But in order to make this innovation a standard procedure is required which we are going to follow in this project. [2]. The references which exist on such a specific study tend to focus on individual material for a particular job. [1]. in this project I would like to count all the eligible materials for the various tasks and then compare them without limiting the factual data on each subject. Particularly in F1 there are mandatory rules and regulations which every racing team has to follow. Hence there is very little to choose from. [1]. But it is also very important to know how much of environmental effect this materials cause whilst in production. There are many materials which provide the optimum properties, but at a very high price. And there are many materials which provide less properties but at a very low price as compared. But as we know that in formula 1 cost is not the priority, performance is the main priority. [6]. Thus the materials selected should not sacrifice the performance in fact increase the performance at the same time trying to reduce the cost. In the initial days the chassis were made of steel, later it was made of aluminium. But now they are made out of carbon fibre and honeycomb material. [6]. and thus, as the time progresses the overall weight of car is decreasing, and at the same time performance is increasing. Thus the need is to decrease the weight and increase the performance. And as the technology progresses this need for lighter and more efficient materials further increases. [3]. 2.2. A brief overview of materials: 2.2.1. Aluminium and its alloys: Aluminium is one of the most common materials to be used in the Automotive Industry, as some of aluminium alloys provide tensile strength superior to those of low carbon steels at same time weigh 1/3 the weight of steel. 2024 is the primary structural aluminium alloy and has exceptional strength and stability at high temperature. It was exclusively used for Disc brake top hats and for aluminium flywheels. At high operating temperatures in the disc and the flywheels, 2024 is the most suitable aluminium alloy. 6061-T6 extrusions are used for joining pieces and for corners, most of the brackets are fabricated from this aluminium alloy. 7075 is the strongest and the stiffest of the commonly available aluminium alloys. It is the most suitable aluminium alloy for machining and is very commonly used for bushings, spacers, and machined suspension components as steering arms, antiroll bar and any straight suspension links. 2.2.2. Magnesium: For a low budget team Magnesium can be considered as the most common and strongest material. It has very good mechanical properties and stiffness. Magnesium alloys are considered to be the best suitable material for machining as compared to other metal materials. It possesses exceptional welding, forging and casting characteristic. It is also a very low density material. But Magnesium has a very high risk of fire. In the form of dust or powder, magnesium is a very dangerous material. Because of this the FIA has banned the use of Magnesium for particular uses. Magnesium also has a tendency to corrode form inside when exposed to salty air. Thus racing at the race tracks like monoco where the track is near the sea. Chances of corrosion are very high. With such high budgets, precision and accuracy, such a chance of using magnesium is avoided. 2.2.3. Titanium: From the past couple of decades, titanium has been the ace of material for race car designers. It delivers the strength of high alloy steels and the weight of aluminium. Even though the price of titanium is very high, as discussed before in Formula1cost is not issue and hence titanium is highly suitable. Oxides of titanium comprise about 0.5% of the earths crust thus making Titanium an exotic material. Titanium is exclusively used for making Forged hubs, brake disc top hats, tubular and sheet suspension linkage fabrications, threaded fasteners and Exhaust systems. Titanium is very resistant to Fatigue from vibration. Commercially pure titanium is probably the best bet for manufacturing F1 components. The exhaust made out of titanium are considerably lighter than 321 stainless steel and infinitely lighter than mild steel at the same time very much stronger at elevated temperatures and virtually fatigue proof. 2.2.4. Honeycomb material: Honey comb material is a fairly old material to be used in Motorsport industry. It was first used in 1950s. Honeycomb sandwich materials are generally composed of aluminium face skins bonded to a core of Hexagonal shaped formed from aluminium foil. It forms continuous shear webs between the face skins, resulting in light panels of exceptional stiffness which are capable of carrying extreme loads with very little deflection. The importance of honey comb was realised after 1966 when Ford used it in historic victory at the Le Mans in its MARK IV which was later called as Ford GT. Aluminium honeycomb installed with the cells longitudinally oriented makes the most efficient energy absorbing structure. But as time has progressed, aluminium honeycomb is replaced by fibreglass honeycomb. The advantages of this new hybrid honeycomb over aluminium honey comb are as follows. Composite face skins of honeycomb structure tend to localize the impact damage and also are very easy to repair. Hybrid honey comb has good characteristics for machining. Hybrid honeycomb material is corrosion proof, non flammable and nontoxic. Hence even by health and safety standards along with high strength and stiffness, they have replaced the traditional aluminium honeycomb material. 2.2.5. Composite materials: The use of high strength lightweight composite materials has brought a revolution in use of materials in industry. The era of composite materials in F1 was started by the McLarens team. They had formed the first formula 1 tub from a composite sandwich composed of face skins of aluminium sheet bonded to the core of edge grained BALSA wood called MALLITE. This resulted in a tub structure with high torsional stiffness. Composite materials are not new to the field of engineering. They were discovered way before the time. It is nothing but a combination of two or materials to form a third material with desired characteristics. Composite materials consist of fibres or filaments of an element whose fibres exhibit high tensile strength and lack rigidity. For instance, even wood is a composite material. The most common used composite material in todays world of Formula 1 is Carbon fibre. More than 95% of the McLarens F1 car is constructed in high performance advanced carbon epoxy composite ma terial. A formula 1 car consists of many components whose duty ranges. The bodywork required a very low mass and moderate stiffness material to the survival cell which requires an extremely high stiffness structure. This requirement is best fulfilled by the composite material. The composites used in F1 are supplied in prepreg form and they need to be vacuum bagged and then cured in an autoclave. This product then needs manual trimming and machining, and boding in order to form the final product. Thus we can say that the process is rather a labour intensive, time consuming and very expensive process. F1 is an industry where low volume and extremely high quality product is desired with huge budgets. Composite materials just fit right in the situation for a F1 car designer. Fibreglass is an example of a composite material which is not exactly expensive as compared to other composite materials. But it has a disadvantage of brittleness and is comparatively heavy. 2.3. Factors governing the Selection of materials in future: In a high end motorsport such as formula 1 there are numerous factors which need to be addressed while selecting a material. The sport as always is at the pinnacle of performance, but not environmentally. There are certain environmental factors which needs special attention and are briefly discussed in this topic. 2.3.1. Life cycle analysis. (LCA). Life cycle analysis is basically evaluation of a material throughout its life span. Life cycle analysis evaluates the material right from its manufacture to the recycling of the material. Evaluation is made on the basis of CO2 emissions, energy and cost of materials. Life cycle analysis will be a main consideration for all the materials to be selected in the future [1]. Because we are aiming at the F1 industry, where mass production is not the main concern, life cycle analysis will help us in comparing the materials which cost the minimum and would be low on energy and emissions throughout its life. The figure below shows the whole life cycle analysis process. Figure 1: life cycle analysis process. Figure 2: total life cycle assessment. Composite materials are very effective in terms of weight reduction [9]. But in terms of life cycle analysis more research is to be carried out about the effect of manufacturing and recycling composite materials [6]. We have some data regarding it. Some research papers conclude that materials like Balsa core and PVC foam sandwich has far better life cycle results as compared to super steel. 2.3.2. Recycling: When we consider composites in terms of recycling, the composite waste is a very interesting and in some ways very difficult. Composite waste consists of polymer with high performance, but it contains only 50-80% of recoverable energy of the polymer. Hence we can say that composite materials are better as recovered material rather than recovered energy. Also as per the research, long fibre waste has more useful characteristics when compared to short fibre composite waste. The most important factor for recycling of composite materials is the orientation of the fibre after it has been used. There are several techniques already invented for recycling of materials such as, Mechanical processing, thermal processing, fluidised bed process, pyrolysis processes etc [4]. It is therefore estimated that in the future there will be many more processes that shall be invented in order to reduce the landfill and the material wasted. These are the two main environmental issues which needs attention when selecting materials. Even thought they are not an essential part while selecting the material, as performance is the most important need in F1, it needs some attention to make the sport environmental friendly. 2.3.3. Safety Factors: It is very important that the material which is selected for the use in F1 cars is 100% a safe material and should not possess any danger even in the event of a high speed accident. The materials should not be poisonous in any form and also should not react with other materials. Because F1 is a high speed sport, it is very necessary that the material selected should be complied with high strength requirements of F1. 2.4. The critical components of Formula 1 car to be assessed in this project. 2.4.1. Engine: The FIA has many rules and regulations specifying the use of materials in the construction of an engine. The following the regulations. 1]. Minimum weight of 95 kg should be there for each 2.4 litre v8 engine. 2]. Engine blocks should be constructed from Forged aluminium alloys for weight reduction in comparison to steel. 3]. to limit the costs, FIA has banned the use of non ferrous materials in Engine block. 4]. Magnesium based alloys, Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Intermetallic materials may not be used anywhere in an engine. 5]. Coatings are free provided the total coating thickness does not exceed 25% of the section thickness of the underlying base material in all axes. 6]. in all cases the relevant coating must not exceed 0.8mm. 7]. Pistons must be manufactured from an aluminium alloy which is either Al-Si; Al-Cu; Al-Mg or Al-Zn based. 8]. Piston pins, crankshafts and camshafts must be manufactured from an iron based alloy and must be machined from a single piece of material. Thus selecting a material for the engine has relatively less choices. In 1998 Mercedes Benz tried to use Berillium alloys in their engines. This gave them an additional advantage of weight loss and drastic performance gain. This also led Mikka Hakkinen to win the world title 2 times consecutively. But later FIA decided that Berillium alloys were too poisonous in large quantities and thus banned the use of it. Thus using the right materials at the very right place is what makes F1 engines so interesting for the designers. As Senior General Manager Engine Luca Marmorini of the Toyota Panasonic team said, In the engine we use almost every kind of material you can on a Formula 1 car, for example you can see aluminium made with complex casting techniques but you also see carbon material. It is very important to keep the centre of gravity of the engine very low so we tend to put the very light parts on the upper part and the heavy parts on the bottom. The exact materials used by the formula1 teams for year 2010 are given in the results and discussion section. http://a5.vox.com/6a00c22521b9fc549d00d4144481ad6a47-500pi Figure 3: F1 Engine block. 2.4.2. Bodywork: This is a very important part of an F1 car. The materials used for bodywork basically define the weight of the car. Over the years numerous materials have been tried on the bodywork of the F1 car. All the light and ultra strong materials are basically revolutionized after they have been used on an F1 car. The materials to be used here should possess the property of being very strong, light in weight and ability to transform in to the required shape which shall give the aerodynamic edge. In the 1960 light weight aluminium was the solution to bodywork. But then Aluminium honeycomb material was developed which was effectively used for another decade along ultra light aluminium sheets. But then in the mid 1980s carbon fibre was discovered. Initially it was only used by the high budget teams as the cost was too high at that time. But then as the time progressed, the price of carbon fibre has decreased considerably and thus used for about 80% of the construction of the car by almost every team. Honey comb structures are still used to meet the safety requirements. http://lotusenthusiast.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/F1R2.jpg Figure 4: F1 2010 Bodywork. 2.4.3. Fuel tanks: Fuel tank is a component of the car which needs exclusive safety features. They should weigh as less as possible, just like any other F1 component, but at the same time should be very strong and 100% leak proof. FIA has strong regulations on the manufacture of fuel tanks. They need to leak proof even in the case of accidents and designer need it to strategically placed, as it carries the weight of the fuel which can disturb the weight distribution of the car. Nowadays the fuel tanks are manufactured from a composite of Kevlar and rubber in F1, unlike aluminium welded fuel tanks in other low end motor racing. The combination of Kevlar and rubber provides an ultra light weight fuel tank which is very strong as well as puncture proof. The detail of manufacturer and composition is given in the results and discussion section. http://wheelnutsjournal.typepad.com/.a/6a0120a5145462970b0120a8cb6ecf970b-800wi Figure 5: ATL Fuel tank of 2010 F1 car. 2.4.4. Brakes: As we know this is one component of the formula 1 car where absolutely no compromise are allowed. A good braking car can result in 10% lap time savings. Thus the materials needed for brakes also need to be light, strong, withstand high temperatures and provide as much as friction possibly allowable for maximum braking. Cooling is a very important factor to be considered when selecting the brakes. There are certain materials which can withstand high temperatures but then struggle to cool down. This can prove to be very costly at end laps of the race. To avoid the problem of cooling, brake ducts are introduced on the cars. This allows simultaneous cooling of the brakes. Carbon fibre shield is used all round the brakes to avoid the heat transfer from brakes to wheel rims. Team like Red bull use the advanced technique of rapid prototyping materials. The big advantage of rapid prototyping is to eliminate the labour of making mould and thus saving time. From the olden days where steel brakes where used, to recent times where Carbon ceramic brake pads are used as the main force for braking. These are very high friction materials and provide the desired braking. Toro Rosso STR3 brake system Figure 6: Ferrari 2009 F1 Brakes of front right. 2.4.5. Wheel rims: Wheel rims rotate at a very high speed. Also high temperatures are achieved within the wheel rim. Thus the material to be selected needs to fulfil both the requirements as well as weigh minimum. The material selected which comes in contact with the tyre also influences the contact patch area between the tyre and the road surface. The FIA regulations state that the wheel rims should be made from single metal flow. This is very necessary and critical from strength point of view. Also there are no regulations on specific materials to be used. Wheel rims are basically manufactured by a company and then supplied to the individual F1 teams. In the recent times, Magnesium alloy is the best suitable material for the construction wheel rims. click to zoom Figure 7: Ferrari 2010 F1 Front right Wheel Rim. 2.4.6. Gear box: The gear box in a F1 car is similar to that of the road car in terms of functions and basic operations. But in an F1 car the gear box has to transfer nearly about 900 BHP to the rear wheels. These needs very strong clutch and Gearbox. Also the weight of the gearbox is very critical. The clutch of an F1 gear box just weighs close to 1.5 kgs, which is like 2-3 times lighter of that of a road car. Also the cover of the gear box casing is made from carbon fibre. Since the gear box is such a critical component of the car, special and exotic materials needs to be used which can satisfy the high demand of speed and temperatures achieved in the gear box. Gear box is a complex component in terms of construction and hence the materials to be used for it needs special ability of machining to the fine tolerance and shapes required. The figure below illustrated the complexity of shape and tolerance to be achieved in a gear box. http://v4admin.sportnetwork.net/upload/491/491_0_1210265553.jpg Figure 8: BMW SAUBER 2005 F1 Gearbox. 2.4.7. Suspension: Formula 1 suspension requires incredibly high stiffness at the same time high strength to withstand the bumps overcome by the car at speed of 200 mph. It is a very important component of the car as it directs the car understeer and oversteer characteristics. Also some high end formula team consider the aerodynamic forces due to the suspension linkage. Thus the materials to be selected for a Formula 1 cars suspension also need to fulfil the characteristics of machinability to the required aerodynamic shape along with very high stiffness and strength. Carbon fibre is proven to be a material with extremely high stiffness with very little weight and thus is used in the suspension of a F1 car. In the past times light weight aluminium was used for the suspension but did not prove to be as effective. Some designers have also tried using titanium for the suspension. But use titanium mainly depends on the budget of the team as it is a very exotic material as discovered before. The materials u sed by the F1 teams for 2010 season for suspension are further discussed in the results and discussion topic. The figure below demonstrates the suspension on a F1 car. http://www.virtualr.net/wp-content/gallery/1349/suspension21.jpg Figure 9: F1 suspension model. 2.5. Summary: Thus we have discussed the possible materials with their characteristics and past relevance to F1. The materials discussed are Aluminium, Magnesium, Titanium, Honeycomb material and Composite materials. We have also discussed the environmental factors such as Life cycle analysis and recycling to the safety factors required for the materials in order to be used in a high speed sport such as F1. Then finally we have discussed the components of the car which shall be taken into consideration for this project. They are Engine, bodywork, Fuel tank, Brakes, Wheel rims, Gearbox and suspension. The function and the criteria for the materials to be selected in this topic have been discussed briefly. 3.0. exPERIMENTAL / NUMERICAL METHODOLOGY A brief description of all the materials that can be considered for using in a Formula 1 car along with their structural properties is explained in the table exhibited below. The values of these structural properties of the materials are used to determine the materials to be used for the specified part. Also the cost of the materials is provided to check if the material is within the budget. Youngs Shear Breaking Fracture Thermal Cost Density Modulus Modulus Poissons Yield Stress UTS strain Toughness Expansion 3 -3/2 -6 MATERIAL Type ($/kg) ( Ã‚ ² ,Mg/m ) (E , GPa) (G , GPa) Ratio ( Ã‚ ® ) ( Ã‚ ³ Y , Mpa) ( Ã‚ ³ f ,Mpa) ( Ã‚ ¥ f , %) (K c ,MN m ) ( Ã‚ ¡ ,10 /C) Alumina (Al2O3) c 1.90 3.9 390 125 0.26 4800 35 0.0 4.4 8.1 Aluminium alloy (7075-T6) m 1.80 2.7 70 28 0.34 500 570 12 28 33 Beryllium alloy m 315.00 2.9 245 110 0.12 360 500 6.0 5.0 14 Bone (compact) n 1.90 2.0 14 3.5 0.43 100 100 9.0 5.0 20 Brass (70Cu30Zn, annealed) m 2.20 8.4 130 39 0.33 75 325 70.0 80 20 Cermets (Co/WC) ct 78.60 11.5 470 200 0.30 650 1200 2.5 13 5.8 CFRP Laminate (graphite) ct 110.00 1.5 1.5 53 0.28 200 550 2.0 38 12 Copper alloys m 2.25 8.3 135 50 0.35 510 720 0.3 94 18 Cork n 9.95 0.18 0.032 0.005 0.25 1.4 1.5 80 0.074 180 Epoxy thermoset p 5.50 1.2 3.5 1.4 0.25 45 45 4.0 0.50 60 GFRP Laminate (glass) ct 3.90 1.8 26 10 0.28 125 530 2.0 40 19 Glass (soda) c 1.35 2.5 65 26 0.23 3500 35 0.0 0.71 8.8 Granite c 3.15 2.6 66 26 0.25 2500 60 0.1 1.5 6.5 Ice (H2O) c 0.23 0.92 9.1 3.6 0.28 85 6.5 0.0 0.11 55 Lead alloys m 1.20 11.

Effect of Antidepressant Treatment on Sexual Dysfunction

Effect of Antidepressant Treatment on Sexual Dysfunction IMPROVEMENT IN SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION FOLLOWING ANTIDEPRESSANT TREATMENT IN DEPRESSED FEMALES *Dr. Abhivant Niteen N. 1, Dr. Sawant Neena S.2, ABSTRACT Introduction: Depression is associated with sexual dysfunction. As the depression improves sexual dysfunction also improves. There are not many studies on female sexuality. Aims and objectives: To find out the changes in sexual functioning in depressed females after treatment with anti-depressant drugs. Method: 41 female patients diagnosed to have depression were included in study. Becks Depression Inventory and Female Sexual Functioning Index scales were applied at the beginning and after 6 weeks to assess the improvement in sexual dysfunction and depression. Results: When scores were compared after 6 weeks of antidepressant treatment then a highly significant difference was seen on all the scores of BDI ( pConclusions: This study showed significant improvement in sexual dysfunction and different aspects of sexual dysfunctions after treatment with antidepressants for 6 weeks. Keywords: Female sexual dysfunction, Depression, SSRI, FSFI. INTRODUCTION: The issue of sexual health, once regarded as taboo subject, has been widely debated recently. Reliable estimates of incidence and severity of sexual dysfunctions in females is difficult to obtain as the patients are often unwilling to raise the issue of sexual health with health professionals and both the patient and the physician may be reluctant to discuss it. Female sexual dysfunction is multifactorial and multidimensional condition combining biological, psychological and interpersonal determinants [1]. Although sexual dysfunctions are not life threatening, they have major impact on personal relationships, physical health and quality of life. There are several studies on male sexual dysfunctions in India [2] but literature on the prevalence of sexual dysfunction among women is particularly scant [3, 4]. The prospective Zurich cohort study shows that the prevalence of sexual problems in depressed subjects is approximately twice that in controls [5]. A number of investigators have reported various sexual dysfunctions associated with depression [1, 6, 7, 8].Female sexual function is also regulated by a variety of neurotransmitters and hormones. Estrogen, testosterone and progesterone promote sexual desire; dopamine promotes desire and arousal, and norepinephrine promotes arousal [9, 10]. Prolactin inhibits arousal, and oxytocin promotes orgasm [11]. Hence a need was felt to look into the aspects of female sexual dysfunctions and it’s relation to underlying depression and drug therapy. Increased awareness of this problem in medical community will lead to further research in female sexual dysfunctions and improved treatment. AIMS AND OBJECTIVE To find out the changes in sexual functioning in depressed females after treatment with anti-depressant drugs. MATERIAL AND METHODS This study was a prospective (6 week) study conducted in a psychiatry outpatient department of a general municipal hospital. The sample consisted of 52 female patients who were diagnosed to have depression as per Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, Text revision, criteria after satisfying inclusion and exclusion criteria. INCLUSION CRITERIA: 1) Females diagnosed to have depression as per Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, Text revision 2) Those who were willing to participate in the study. 3) Language compatibility. EXCLUSION CRITERIA: 1) Females less than 18 years of age. 2) Those with past history of depression or any psychiatric illness. 3)Those who were on any other psychotropic medications. 4) Sexual dysfunction prior to depression. 52 female patients were screened of which 3 patients refused the consent and so had to be dropped out of the study. 49 female patients gave consent and so were enrolled in the study protocol. Of the 49 patients, 8 patients dropped out of the follow-up period over 6 weeks. At the end of 6 weeks, 41 patients were available for analysis. All patients were explained about the nature of study and it’s applications and informed consent was obtained from patients. A proforma was designed to enquire into the socio-demographic details, details of psychopathology, presence of sexual dysfunctions and questions pertaining to aims and objectives of study. All the patients were interviewed in presence of female co-investigator or another lady doctor or a nurse and were interviewed in drug naà ¯ve state and then they were started on any of the Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor medications viz Sertraline, Escitalopram for underlying depression. All the patients were administered Beck’s Depression Inventory and Female Sexual Functioning Index Scale in the drug naà ¯ve state and all the scales were again administered at the end of 6 weeks of anti-depressant medication to gauge the improvement in mood and sexual functioning. TOOLS: 1) BECK’S DEPRESSION INVENTORY: Developed by A. Beck [12] is a rating to measure the severity of depression in which individuals rate their own symptoms of depression. This is a 21 item scale which evaluates the key symptoms of depression including mood, pessimism, sense of failure, self dissatisfaction, self accusation, self dislike, guilt, punishment, suicidal ideas, crying, irritability, social withdrawal, indecisiveness, body image changes, insomnia, fatigability, loss of appetite, weight loss, somatic pre-occupation and loss of libido. Individuals are asked to rate themselves on a 0 to 3 spectrum [0=least, 3=most] with a score range of 0 to 63. Total score is a sum of all items. 2) FEMALE SEXUAL FUNCTIONING INDEX [13]: The Female Sexual Functioning Index is a 19 item questionnaire. It is a brief, multidimensional, self report instrument to assess the key dimensions of sexual function in females. It assesses six domains of sexual function including 1) Desire 2) Physical arousal-sensation Physical arousal-lubrication 4) Orgasm 5) Satisfaction and 6) Pain. All the scales were translated in Marathi and Hindi and were validated by the departmental staff before administration. DATA ANALYSIS: All analyses were done with SPSS statistical version 11 at 5% significance. The changes in tools (Beck’s Depression Inventory, Female Sexual Functioning Index) were analyzed pre and post treatment using the paired‘t’ test. RESULTS The mean age of this sample (n=49) was 28.9 years (+_ 3.03 yrs) with range of 23- 39 years and majority (81.6%) patients were from 25-31 years age group. Majority (63.26%) of patients had completed their secondary education and 94% were home makers with hardly 6% of them doing some job. As expected, about two-third (67.34%) were Hindus. The mean duration of depression was 2 years with standard deviation of 1.8 years with range being from 3 months to 7 years. When all the patients were assessed for improvement in their depression and areas of sexual functioning after a 6 week treatment with SSRI’s viz. Escitalopram (optimum dose 10 to 15 mg) and Sertraline (100mg), then a highly significant difference was seen on all the scores of BDI ( p On the various domains of FSFI a highly significant difference was seen on the domains of Arousal (p DISCUSSION Depressive disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders [14]. Depression is characterized by loss of interest, reduction in energy, lowered self-esteem and inability to experience pleasure, irritability and social withdrawal which may impair the ability to form and maintain intimate relationships. This constellation of symptoms may be expected to produce difficulties in sexual relationships, and depression has long been associated with sexual problems [15]. A number of investigators have reported association between sexual dysfunctions and depression [1, 6, 7, 8]. Depression is also associated with various neurotransmitter changes which may also contribute to sexual dysfunction in depression [10, 16, 17]. Our study showed that as depression improves, sexual functioning also improves which has been corroborated by Piazza [18] who had studied depressed women with greater sexual dysfunction at baseline and improvement in sexual functioning with treatment with SSRI’s in areas of improvement in sex drive, physiologic and psychological arousal. SSRI’s due to their antidepressant action improve the depression which may consequently reduce the various faulty cognitions associated with depression and enhance the person’s self esteem and energy. Also as the depression improves the various biological changes associated with it also improves which may also contribute to the reduction in sexual dysfunction. In short, with reversal of biological and psychological changes sexual dysfunction improves with SSRI treatment. There are also various studies which have linked SSRI’s with sexual dysfunction and have been discussed in critical reviews [19, 20] but Montgomery and colleagues [21] have also pointed out numerous obstacles to establishing the exact prevalence of antidepressant-related sexual dysfunction. Sex is more than a physical act. It also includes emotional and psychological dimensions. Studies have also shown that besides antidepressants many other factors influence the incidence and prevalence of sexual dysfunction in patients with depression. These include factors such as, depression itself, cultural and social factors and physical and psychiatric co-morbidities [21]. Given the scarcity of evidence-based treatments, the management of sexual dysfunction is still an art rather than a science. Even a seemingly clear-cut case of medication-associated sexual dysfunction should not be treated in a vacuum or in a strictly biological sense. The overall treatment should always take into consideration psychological factors and normal fluctuation of sexual functioning. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: We sincerely acknowledge the support and guidance of Dr. Shubhangi Parkar, Professor and Head, Department of Psychiatry, Seth G. S. Medical College and K. E. M. Hospital, Parel, Mumbai. 400012 REFERENCES: 1. Mathew RJ, Weinman ML: Sexual dysfunctions in depression. Arch Sexual Behav.1982; 11: 323–328 2. Verma K.K. et al: The frequency of sexual dysfunctions in patients attending a sex therapy clinic in north India, Arch sex behav.1998; 27: 309-314 3. Kulhara P, Avasthi A. Sexual dysfunction on the Indian subcontinent. Int Rev Psychiatry.1995; 7: 231-9 4. Avasthi A, Kaur R, Prakash O, Banerjee A, Kumar L, Kulhara P. Sexual behavior of married young women: A preliminary study from north India. Indian J Community Med.2008; 33: 163-7 5. Angst J. Sexual problems in healthy and depressed patients. Int Clin Psychopharmacol.1998; 13 (Suppl 6): S1–3 6. Clayton A H et al: assessment of Paroxetine induced sexual dysfunction using the changes in sexual functioning questionnaire: Psychopharmacol Bull.1995; 31: 397-413 7. Harvey K. V., Balon R: Clinical implications of antidepressant drug effects on sexual functioning; Ann Clin Psychiatry.1995; 7: 189-201 8. Harrison W.M. et al; Effects of an antidepressant medication on sexual function, a controlled study: J Clin Psychopharmacol.1986; 6: 144-149 9. Buss DM. The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating. London: Harper Collins; 1994. p. 84-5. 10. Bloom FE. Brain, mind and behaviour. W.H. Freeman Co. 1985-88. p.208-17, 227-8. 11. Panksepp J. The foundfations of human and animal emotions.. New York. Oxford University Press. 12. Beck A T et al: â€Å"Psychometric properties of Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty five years of evaluation†. Clin Psychol Rev.1988; 8: 77-100 13. R Rosen et al: Journ of Sex and Marital therapy.2000; 26: 191-208 14. Rihmer Z, Angst A.; Mood disorders: Epidemiology: in Comprehensive Textbook Of Psychiatry; Sadock B J, Sadock V. A.; 8th edition, Lippincott Williams And Wilkins; 2004. 15. Baldwin DS. Depression and sexual function. J Psychopharmacol.1996; 10 (Suppl. 1): S30–34 16. Clayton A H. Sexual dysfunction in depression. Tricks of the trade in the long-term treatment of depression. Program and abstracts of the American Psychiatric Association 156th Annual Meeting; May 17-22, 2003; San Francisco, California. 17. Levin R. J. et al: The mechanism of human female sexual arousal; Ann Rev Sex Res.1992; 3: 1-48 18. Piazza L. A., Markowitz J. C., Kocsis J.H.: Sexual functioning in chronically depressed patients treated with SSRI Antidepressants: A pilot study; Am J Psychiatry.1997; 154: 1757-1759 19. Rosen RC, Lane RM, Menza M: Effects of SSRIs on sexual function: a critical review. J Clin Psychopharmacology.1999; 19: 67–85 20. Williams VSL, Baldwin DS, Hogue SL, Fehnel SE, Hollis KA, Edin HM: Estimating the prevalence and impact of antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction in 2 European countries: a cross-sectional patient survey. J Clin Psychiatry.2006; 67: 204–210 21. Montgomery SA, Baldwin DS, Riley A: Antidepressant medications: a review of the evidence for drug-induced sexual dysfunction. J Affect Disord. 2002; 69: 119–140

The Definition of Insanity as it Relates to Criminal Offences :: Criminal Justice

The insanity defense is a defense asserted by an accused in a criminal prosecution to avoid liability for the commission of a crime because, at the time of the crime, the person did not appreciate the nature or quality or wrongfulness of the acts. The insanity defense is used by criminal defendants. The most common variation is cognitive insanity. Under the test for cognitive insanity, a defendant must have been so impaired by a mental disease or defect at the time of the act that he or she did not know the nature or quality of the act, or, if the defendant did know the nature or quality of the act, he or she did not know that the act was wrong. The vast majority of states allow criminal defendants to invoke the cognitive insanity defense. Another form of the insanity defense is volitional insanity, or Irresistible Impulse. A defense of irresistible impulse asserts that the defendant, although able to distinguish right from wrong at the time of the act, suffered from a mental disease or defect that made him or her incapable of controlling her or his actions. This defense is common in crimes of vengeance. For example, suppose that a child has been brutally assaulted. If an otherwise conscientious and law-abiding mother shoots the perpetrator, the mother may argue that she was so enraged that she became mentally ill and incapable of exerting self-control. Very few states allow the volitional insanity defense. The insanity defense should not be confused with Incompetency. Persons who are incompetent to stand trial are held in a mental institution until they are considered capable of participating in the proceedings.The insanity defense also should be kept separate from issues concerning mental retardation. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 2002 in Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304, 122 S. Ct. 2242, 153 L. Ed. 2d 335 (2002) that the execution of mentally retarded criminals constituted "cruel and unusual punishment" and that it was prohibited by Eighth Amendment. But if a person is acquitted by reason of insanity, execution is not an option. The insanity defense reflects the generally accepted notion that persons who cannot appreciate the consequences of their actions should not be punished for criminal acts. Most states regulate the defense with statutes, but a few states allow the courts to craft the rules for its proper use. Generally, the defense is available to a criminal defendant if the judge instructs the jury that it may consider whether the defendant was insane when the crime was committed.

Downfall Of The American Dream in The Great Gatsby :: The Great Gatsby

Authors use symbolism in their written expressions in order to enhance the thematic interests of the novel. The use of symbolism allows the reader to interpret the story, which in turn, stimulates a more personal, imaginative, and meaningful experience. Scott F. Fitzgerald’s, The Great Gatsby, became an instant classic because of the symbolism used to enhance the theme throughout the novel. Without this symbolism, the theme of the withering American Dream would have been less than adequate, and the book would have never attained the status and popularity among readers that it does today. The most prominent and influential symbols are the green light, Gatsby’s shirts, and the Valley of Ashes. When Gatsby is first seen, “he stretched out his arms toward…a single green light, minute and far way, that might have been the end of a dock.';(Fitzgerald 26) The green light that he appears to be reaching for is the light on Daisy’s dock. In Gatsby’s early life he had a romantic relationship with Daisy. However, he went away to war and when he came back she was married to an extremely wealthy man, Tom Buchanan. Gatsby concluded in his own mind that in order to win Daisy’s love, he too had to become wealthy. After he established himself financially, he bought a house directly across the water from Daisy and her green light. He associates Daisy with the green light, and it becomes a symbol of her throughout the novel. “The whole being of Gatsby exists only in relation to what the green light symbolizes.';(Bewley 41) Gatsby becomes so infatuated with the green light that it is almost as if Daisy does not even exist. She becomes no more than a romant ic dream within the green light on the dock. At last he realizes this when he and Daisy meet and, while staring at the green light, link arms. He finally attains what he thought he wanted and the green light becomes no more than a green light. This false sense of reality brings Gatsby great melancholy when he realizes that Daisy is not as great as he thought she was. This is similar to the feelings immigrants were overcome by when they reached America. They had been told their whole lives that America was the land of opportunity and that the streets were paved with gold, but when they got there they realized it wasn’t all that different from the homeland which they so eagerly deserted.

Principles of Diversity, Equality and Inclusion in Adult Social Care Setting Essay

1.1 Define what is meant by: Diversity Equality Inclusion Discrimination Diversity – is meant by acknowledging that each individual is unique and recognising individual differences, For example culture, ability, gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, or any other individual characteristic. Equality – is fair treatment and access opportunities for all regardless of differences like their ability, culture, race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, or any other group characteristic. Inclusion – is to embrace all people regardless of race, gender, age, ability etc. its about recognising that we are one and not all the same and to have a sense of belonging. Discrimination – is an unfair or unequal treatment of an individual or group on the grounds of age, gender, ability, race etc. its being disadvantaged or excluded in the same situation. 1.2 Describe how direct or indirect discrimination may occur in the work setting Direct discrimination may occur if an employee is not considered for a promotion because of age or a job is refused to a person because of their disability. Indirect discrimination may occur when employees are insisted to do nights shifts as this could exclude those who have children for or by not making reasonable adjustments at work could exclude those employees with a disability. 1.3 Explain how practices that support diversity, equality, inclusion reduce  the likelihood of discrimination Practices that support diversity, equality and inclusion to reduce the likelihood of discrimination may include encouraging everyone to express their views and have them listened to which in turns help us to respect and celebrate peoples differences, Promoting good practices and valuing their individuality enabling them to be fully involved not only in their own lives but everyone around them. 2.1 list key legislation and codes of practice relating to diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination in adult social care setting Current legislation and codes of practice : Equality act 2010 Human rights act 1998 Essential standards GSCC Code of practice Safeguarding vulnerable groups act 2006 2.2 Describe how to interact with individuals in an inclusive way Interacting with individuals in an inclusive way, enabling the individual to be fully fully involved in their daily life and making the individual comfortable, being respectful and sincere at all times, being open to an individuals needs, view and beliefs , wishes and culture also taking a genuine interest in the individual. 2.3 Describe ways in which discrimination may be challenged in adult social care setting Ways to challenge discrimination, to not tolerate any form of discrimination and taking immediate action when discrimination occurs, empowering individuals to challenge discrimination themselves when it occurs, recording and reporting fully all incidents of discrimination that occurs, providing information, codes of practice or policy that explains discriminatory practices that must not occur also providing training to help make everyone aware of how to prevent and challenge discrimination. 3.1 Identify sources of information, advice and support about diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination How to identify sources of information about diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination is looking at the codes of practice and policies and procedures, also my line manager or care co-ordinator (eg senior) or individuals themselves, specialists advice eg human rights and equality commission, unions and charities eg age uk. 3.2 Describe how and when to access information, advice and support about diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination How to access information, there are various ways obtaining information on diversity, equality , inclusion and discrimination. you can access government websites that list all the current legislation in place to protect the rights of individuals. You can obtain leaflets to give to individuals informing them of mine and their rights. I also can contact certain charities such as age uk, who can supply materials to hand out to my residents on diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination, also my local citizens advice bureau will have some leaflets When to access information on diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination is starting work in a health and social care setting or when clarification is needed. when you are having difficulties to promote diversity, equality , inclusion and discrimination and if an individual or a colleague request or requires more information

Definition of Some Symbols

Some people seem to think that the red cross which is used as a symbol by the American Red Cross and International Red Cross is a Christian symbol – and therefore that these organizations are Christian in character. I don't know why, but these people don't seem to realize that cross are and have been used as symbols outside of Christianity. Media Matters reports: [A]ccording to the American Red Cross website, it was â€Å"[i]n honor of the Swiss †¦ that] the symbol of a red cross on a white background (the reverse of the Swiss flag) was identified as a protective emblem in conflict areas. † While the cross on the Swiss flag originated in the 1200s from â€Å"a symbol of the Christian faith,† according to the Swiss Embassy in the United States, the Red Cross makes no mention of Christianity as a reason for adopting the symbol. †¦ In addition to stating that its symbol was chosen as the reverse of the Swiss flag, the American Red Cross website adds that â€Å"[t]he Red Cross idea was born in 1859, when Henry Dunant, a young Swiss man, came upon the scene of a bloody battle in Solferino, Italy,† and that the â€Å"emblem was adopted at this first International Conference as a symbol of neutrality† at the first-ever Geneva Convention at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1864. Media Matters put up this information to explain how Bill O’Reilly was incorrect to use this as an example for why it’s wrong to remove the large Christian cross from Mt. Soledad in San Diego. O’Reilly isn’t the only person who thinks that the red cross is a Christian cross, though — that appears to be a belief held by many Muslims and why Muslim organizations use a red crescent. Vehicles with a red cross on them might be targeted as a Christian vehicle in wrong place. Thus, Christians like Bill O†™Reilly who are trying to defend Christianity are making the same mistakes as non-Christian terrorists who would like to attack Christianity. The irony of this is truly astounding. It is confusing because most people think of a â€Å"cross† as the Christian symbol, the murder weapon. The cross or plus sign on the Swiss flag is actually a symbol of the Christian faith as well so the red cross flag, a symbol which is derivative of the Swiss flag, is also a Christian symbol. The plus sign is in all aspects a cross in the religious sense and does represent a specific religion on the Swiss flag as well as the red cross symbol. I might as well be in the shape of the murder weapon itself more traditionally presented by religious people. There is a red crescent flag and a red star of David flag as well, clearly religious symbols which were made as alternatives it the Christian cross or plus sign on these flags. Identification * The red cross symbol is a four-armed cross that resembles two perfect rectangles placed to look like a cross. There is no lettering, and the symbol usually appears on a white background. Significance * The symbol is the international sign for medic. It is associated in the U. S. with the American Red Cross, a nonprofit aid agency that helps those in need, regardless of their ability to pay. History * The cross was one of many symbols used to signify medic until the introduction of firearms to battle and the increase in casualties. Henri Durant designed the red cross as we know it today after witnessing tens of thousands of soldiers left dying on the battlefield with no one to help them. As I understand it, the red cross was a symbol designed to identify medical personal during wartime – it was meant to be a symbol of protection. It is a reversal of the Swiss flag, in honour of the Red Cross founder, Henry Dunant, who was swiss. So nurses and other medical personal wore a red cross to identify themselves. Nursing was at the core of the Red Cross movement from its inception. Nowadays, the Red Cross has come to be associated with disaster relief and other humanitarian efforts. the red cross represents many things such as unity, peace, hope, and the color of our blood The crescent moon and star is an internationally-recognized symbol of the faith of Islam. The symbol is featured on the flags of several Muslim countries, and is even part of the official emblem for the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. The Christians have the cross, the Jews have the star of David, and the Muslims have the crescent moon, right? What is the history behind the crescent moon symbol? What does it symbolize or mean? How and when did it become associated with the faith of Islam? Is it a valid symbol for the faith? The crescent moon and star symbol actually pre-dates Islam by several thousand years. Information on the origins of the symbol are difficult to ascertain, but most sources agree that these ancient celestial symbols were in use by the peoples of Central Asia and Siberia in their worship of sun, moon, and sky gods. There are also reports that the crescent moon and star were used to represent the Carthaginian goddess Tanit or the Greek goddess Diana. The city of Byzantium (later known as Constantinople and Istanbul) adopted the crescent moon as its symbol. According to some reports, they chose it in honor of the goddess Diana. Others indicate that it dates back to a battle in which the Romans defeated the Goths on the first day of a lunar month. In any event, the crescent moon was featured on the city's flag even before the birth of Christ. The early Muslim community did not really have a symbol. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), Islamic armies and caravans flew simple solid-colored flags (generally black, green, or white) for identification purposes. In later generations, the Muslim leaders continued to use a simple black, white, or green flag with no markings, writing, or symbolism on it. It wasn't until the Ottoman Empire that the crescent moon and star became affiliated with the Muslim world. When the Turks conquered Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, they adopted the city's existing flag and symbol. Legend holds that the founder of the Ottoman Empire, Osman, had a dream in which the crescent moon stretched from one end of the earth to the other. Taking this as a good omen, he chose to keep the crescent and make it the symbol of his dynasty. There is speculation that the five points on the star represent the five pillars of Islam, but this is pure conjecture. The five points were not standard on the Ottoman flags, and as you will see on the following page, it is still not standard on flags used in the Muslim world today. For hundreds of years, the Ottoman Empire ruled over the Muslim world. After centuries of battle with Christian Europe, it is understandable how the symbols of this empire became linked in people's minds with the faith of Islam as a whole. Based on this history, many Muslims reject using the crescent moon as a symbol of Islam. The faith of Islam has historically had no symbol, and many refuse to accept what is essentially an ancient pagan icon. It is certainly not in uniform use among Muslims. Why We Look Up – Lascaux is a World Heritage Site and late Upper Paleolithic cave complex in southwestern France that belongs to the Magdalenian Culture. Lascaux's cave paintings were made c. 15–18,000 B. C. The sophistication of the Lascaux cave paintings is extraordinary when considered against their great antiquity. Their subtlety, complexity of technique and metaphor are qualities we can immediately relate to. The full articulation of this cave art reveals a mind akin to our own. If time and language barriers could be set aside, it is very possible that Magdalenian people of the late Upper Paleolithic would understand us, and that in return we could understand them. What do these great paintings tell us? Aurochs and other large animals portrayed in Paleolithic cave art were often hunted for food. The act of painting them in a sacred cave has often been interpreted as an important element in a ritual that invoked sympathetic hunting magic. The act of a painting the animal sends a message to its spirit, that great respect is intended and that only those individuals essential for tribal survival will be hunted and killed. The spirit world and the gods are asked to ‘understand' and not penalize the human sphere. The act of painting, the actions and protocol by which these paintings are executed, is the ritual. The finished painting is a record of the ceremony. It is a static reminder of the bond between the spirit world and humankind and of the obligations each ‘world' owes to the other. We do not know if these great animal paintings were prayed to. We do not know if Paleolithic religion venerated and prayed to icons. Read more at http://www. environmentalgraffiti. com/sciencetech/what-the-lascaux-cave-paintings-tell-us-about-how-our-ancestors-understood-the-stars/15506#r9dA81UrDttvubS6. 99 What do these great paintings tell us? Aurochs and other large animals portrayed in Paleolithic cave art were often hunted for food. The act of painting them in a sacred cave has often been interpreted as an important element in a ritual that invoked sympathetic hunting magic. The act of a painting the animal sends a message to its spirit, that great respect is intended and that only those individuals essential for tribal survival will be hunted and killed. The spirit world and the gods are asked to ‘understand' and not penalize the human sphere. The act of painting, the actions and protocol by which these paintings are executed, is the ritual. The finished painting is a record of the ceremony. It is a static reminder of the bond between the spirit world and humankind and of the obligations each ‘world' owes to the other. We do not know if these great animal paintings were prayed to. We do not know if Paleolithic religion venerated and prayed to icons. At the beginning and end of time, all the ‘worlds' are integrated and melded into an indescribable whole and ‘oneness'. This final and beginning state of reality is the adamantine bliss of yoga and Buddhist cosmology as typified by the god Brahma. It is often created by the cosmic dance of the multi-armed Shiva. It is everything and nothing, timeless and beyond words. Read more at http://www. environmentalgraffiti. com/sciencetech/what-the-lascaux-cave-paintings-tell-us-about-how-our-ancestors-understood-the-stars/15506#r9dA81UrDttvubS6. 99 Lascaux – Hall of Bulls / panorama Norbert Aujolat – CNP/MCC This is the deep layer of meaning in many Paleolithic cave paintings that goes beyond sympathetic hunting magic. This is a multidimensional, mythological layer whose journey in the millennia to follow will connect with Stonehenge as a future article shall discuss. This deeper layer is also metaphysical and mathematical, and relates to the adamantine oneness of Vedic, Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. The complexity of mind revealed in late Upper Paleolithic cave art is akin to that expressed much later in history by ancient Vedic philosophers whose art form was Sanskrit poetry. Mathematical aspects in late Upper Paleolithic mythopoetics derived from observational astronomy. Some cave paintings recorded an understanding of the path the moon takes around the sun – the ecliptic. An understanding of the ecliptic leads to the discovery of the zodiac, the annual path of the sun through the celestial sphere. A construct for the zodiac then follows, in which it is divided into twelve sections later known as ‘houses'. Stars, moons and planets in Upper Paleolithic culture are not the stars, moons and planets of modern astrophysics that we know. They are deities whose habitat is the Milky Way and the celestial sphere. Mathematics is art, as Plato knew well. If the annual journey of the sun, moon, visible planets and some very bright stars can be tracked and recorded with enough precision to enable accurate prediction, then the human ‘world' has understood a great deal about the gods. We are no longer passive because we know where these celestial entities go during their year's sojourn and what those journeys portend for life on earth. The gods do not travel alone, nor are they unconcerned about human welfare. We are their acolytes and worshipers, and the only beings that can nourish the gods. We are the only sentient beings beside the gods themselves. This is not a child's game where Paleolithic astronomer-shaman-priests looked into the night sky to find the silhouettes of familiar animals in the geometrical arrangement of stars in the night sky. We can be fairly confident that star gazing at night was not frivolous. It was a search for realities that were believed to exist. What might be those truths? These early artifacts and cave paintings reveal a deep conviction that there was a spirit world inhabited by deities, and that some or all of that ‘universe' was above us and was celestial. Another portion of the universe was below, an ‘underworld' that was the antithesis of the celestial. The ‘world of the gods' was not chaotic. Observational astronomy was the premier empirical science of the time. Astronomer-priests discovered that the ‘world' of the gods was multidimensional and precisely organized by number and time. Pattern through time, provides consistency, a belief in structure and the possibility for prediction down the time track of the future. Look up, think and perhaps the manifestations of several deities can be seen, if they wish that to be seen by humans. When the Late Paleolithic astronomer-priests found the gods in the heavens, they confirmed that the gods do wish to be seen by us, that their celestial form is recognizable and stable, and does not change from night to night. Dr. Michael Rappengluck of the University of Munich has long believed that Magdalenian Culture of the late Upper Paleolithic in Europe looked at the night sky and ‘saw’ the Milky Way. They also discerned several bright, prominent arrangements of stars which could be described and integrated into a mythology. These arrangements of stars were the first constellations to intrude into human culture. Organized into a celestial landscape that winds its way through the Milky Way and upon which the Sun will travel, the earliest Zodiac had been found and mapped. As Plato said about mathematics, it is not an invention of human genius. It has always been there, waiting to be discovered. Lascaux – Two Aurochs / Taurus, Scorpio Photo – Prof saxx / Wikipedia The two aurochs that face each other were aligned with arrangements for the constellations of Taurus and Scorpio. They also correspond to the rising and setting opposition of two fixed stars: a) Aldebaran, which is the eye of the bull in the constellation Taurus; and b) Antares which is in Scorpio. Understand that there are several aurochs depicted on the cave walls in the Hall of the Bulls, but only one depiction of the constellation Taurus the Bull. Why do the Bulls predominate, why is Taurus the dominant constellation? Taurus is not the Solar God unless we make him so. The eye of the auroch that is Taurus is the supergiant star Aldebaran in the center of the constellation. The open star cluster Hyades encircles, and the Pleiades is above, the shoulder of Taurus. Culture would be the behaviour – context would be anything else eg climate, geography, raw materials and technology available. So smoke signals would reflect a culture and the fact that on open plains you can see such signalling.. Cave paintings are the root of traditional illustration, one the earliest of which has been in recent news, a ‘faint red dot' dated to more than 40,000 years ago. These were discovered in 11 caves in Spain, and results show that they are at least 15,000 years older than we first thought. It raises many questions; What are they trying to say? Who made it? Is it symbolic? Who was it made for? No matter what the answers are, illustration is a means for people to convey information, a means of visual communication. The purpose of these cave paintings are unknown, and we can only speculate as to their actual purpose. A time well before printing press, but the value of visual communication has lasted through the ages. One thing that is for sure is it was some sort of communication via visual aids, they had a purpose and had something to say. As you understand from the title, this blog is going to be about the History of Visual Communication Design, that actually had started many many years ago†¦ First of all, visual communication means, â€Å"the communication of ideas throufh the visual display of information. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes: art, signs, photography, typography, drawing fundamentals, colour and electronic resources. Recent research in the field has focused on web design and graphically oriented usability. It is part of what a graphic designer does to communicate visually with the audience. † (from http://www. citrinitas. com) History of Visual Communication Design has actually started with the paintings on rocks and caves in Europe with Cro-Magnons, who form the earliest known European examples of Homo-sapiens. It is known that they are descending from populations of the Middle-East and lived from about 40,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Paleolithic period of the Pleistocene epoch. Cro-Magnons were anatomically modern. They are only different with their partly stronger physiology and brains that have larger capacity than that of modern humans. After they arrived in Europe (about 40,000 years ago), they brought sculpture, painting, body ornamentation, engraving, music and decoration of utilitarian objects, there. Tools that were survived by Cro-Magnons comprise of huts (small dwelling), carvings, cave paintings and antler-tipped spears (weapons). By the way, antler means horn of animals in the deer family, so we know that they used to hunt animal not only for food, but to make weapons, too. The remains also suggest that these people knew how to make woven clothing. More over their huts were constructed of rocks, bones, clay, branches and animal fur. It is possible that Cro-Magnons have created the first calender around 15. 000 years ago, with their knowledge of painting pictures with manganese and iron oxides. Cave Paintings â€Å"Cave or rock paintings are paintings painted on cave or rockwalls and ceilings, usually dating to prhistoric times. Rock paintings are made since the Upper Paleolithic, 40,000 years ago. It is widely believed that the paintings are the work of respected elders or shamans. † They mostly used to draw/paint large wild animals, like bisons, aurochs, horses, deers and tracing of human hands. Of caurse they have depicted abstract forms, too. † (from http://www. citrinitas. com) Researchers think that cave art may have