The Norse tale of Ragnarok Essay - 1136 Words

The Norse tale of Ragnarok presents an interesting example of apocalyptic literature by providing both an end and a unique beginning. The world which rises from the cosmic rubble seems to be essentially equivalent to that which the apocalypse destroyed, possessing the same creatures, features and Gods of times past. This considered, and by incorporating themes of time and fate, Snorri challenges the concepts of the past, present and future of Norse lore by providing a framework which allows for the potential reiteration of history. By reviewing The Prose Edda’s telling of the events surrounding Ragnarok, the relationship between fate, time and history provide a unique alternative to the standard eschatological timeline. The Prose Edda†¦show more content†¦Instead the Gods are awarded most of the spotlight. Unlike John’s Revelation, The Poetic Edda offers no guidance to man on how to confront this issue, nor does it offer any means of escape. Therefor, it can be assumed that man has no effect on the end, except possibly by way of untrimmed nails and scrap leather (Snorri, 72). However, by presenting deities that possess more human characteristics, who have weaknesses and quarrels, they become the relatable entities within the text. Introductions established, The Edda continues by exhibiting the questioning of Odin, chief of the Gods, by Gylfi, a traveling king (Snorri, 10). Gylfi asks about the race of Gods, to which Odin tells the story of his wife Frigg and their favorite son Balder. The purity of whom foreshadows his future significance. Balder, Odin responds, suffered from a series of foreboding dreams which prompts Frigg’s to take maternal action. She traveled the world, requiring an oath from every substance and material that they will not harm her son. Thus protected, Balder could bear the abuse of swords, sticks and fire without sustaining injury (Snorri, 65). Here Odin introduces of Loki, the trickster God, who becomes jeal ous of Balder’s immunity. While disguised, Loki asks Frigg â€Å" ‘Have all things given their oath not to harm Balder?’ Frigg answers, ‘A shoot of wood grows to the west of Valhalla. It is called Mistletoe, and it seemed too young for me to demand itsShow MoreRelatedNorse Mythology : Norse Myth Essay1711 Words   |  7 PagesWhen you hear the words ‘Norse Mythology’, you typically begin to think about what you learned from the movies and comics produced by Marvel. The story you know revolves around Thor: The handsome and all-wise, powerful God of Thunder, who takes on his evil blood-brother Loki. You ve also probably heard of Thor’s magical flying hammer, and the rainbow bridge that allows the gods to cross over to different realms. However, Norse mythology goes way deeper than just tales of a superhero conquering allRead MoreHow To Train Your Dragon: A Film Created from Norse Mythology698 Words   |  3 Pagesvoice actors, and amazi ng animation, this film also includes something else I enjoy, Mythology! Norse Mythology, to be more precise. You can see the Viking characters looking very similar to that of Norse Gods very early in the film. They wear horned helmets, body armor and carry around round shields. Both men and women are fighting. Their weaponry are axes, swords, spears and hammers, are used by Norse gods. There hair is long and the men have grown long breads as well. Their form of transportationRead MoreThe End Of The World Essay1913 Words   |  8 Pagesrecord history there have been tales of creation and the end of the world. 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In fact, â€Å"he was so outrageously mischievous that he even sneaked his way into becoming a god† (Allen, and Saunders, par. 1). However, even though he a lmost always seems to be getting the gods into some kind ofRead MoreVikings1677 Words   |  7 Pagesmarriage ended in a divorce, the dowry was refundable. Also, women were allowed to own land and were very often left alone to manage it while their husbands went off to barter at markets or went overseas to trade or raid. Social structure among the Norse wasn’t what one could call equal for all. Though class distinctions were not absolute and fixed, they did separate the masses from those most likely to succeed. Slaves, or thralls, occupied the lowest rung of the social ladder, although prisoners

The Purpose of Education Free Essays

The purpose of education is to spread knowledge to the younger generation. Without education, tradition is lost, as well as the potential of youth. For centuries, the old have taught the young. We will write a custom essay sample on The Purpose of Education or any similar topic only for you Order Now They have passed the torch of knowledge from one hand to another. Whether it was a master teaching an apprentice, or a teacher teaching a class, the tradition of teaching has been in practice since the beginning of man. Without a mentor for a child to learn from, the child will never find the truth behind the mysteries of life. The child needs to be trained to succeed and even better, reach self-fulfillment. That is why the teacher must be of the highest quality. The student will take after the teacher, not only in knowledge, but also in style and example. If the teacher has a flaw, the child will accept that flaw as his or her own. There is a special bond between the teacher and the student. The teacher must be prepared to take on the student as more than a student, but as a friend. Those, whose intelligence surpasses other’s, should be given a challenge in every circumstance available. Harder work should be provided, but not demanded. Although, those with the skills to complete such work, should not let their minds go to waste. They should harness their brain’s power to be as successful as possible. A person with college education and gained analyzing skills and deep knowledge field of studies, not only the person will be qualified and prepared for the job advertised from that company; but will also have potential to excel faster and have high salaries. College education is a very important central in everyday life. It plants the fundamentals for confronting problems and obstacles found in part of life, and being able to solve them with ease and accuracy. It gives a wide opportunity and potential in apply for higher profile jobs with good pay. It gives a person confidence in understanding life and the environment. A person with a college education will be successful in life because he understands it and knows it. An ideal system of education requires distinct characteristics. Our education system today is not quite perfect. All education institutions share a common goal. The goal is for all the students to gain knowledge that they didn’t have before in order to compete in the real world. The majority of people believe that getting knowledge is â€Å"obtaining education. † There is more to the concept that â€Å"students are depositories† and the â€Å"teachers are the depositor. Paule Friere ) The success of the students is directly connected to the environment he is surrounded. A perfect education system has to start with a comfortable environment. The teacher also has to be knowledgeable and not believe in the myth that â€Å"teachers justifies their own existence through their students ignorance absolute. â€Å"(Paule Friere) A perfect institution of education should be able to accommodate cultural change, diversity, have a strict curriculum with alternative teaching strategies, and promotes interaction among their peers. In a perfect educational system, interaction among students will greatly be encouraged. And there are many elements that need drastic change so that this educational system may be more refined and more productive. Teachers are a very important element in successfully transferring knowledge from the teacher to the pupil. In this institution, teachers are not allowed to believe that they are superior to the students. When this occurs, and the inequality sets in, the student will be hesitant to ask questions about subjects they don’t understand. When a student does this, he is unintentionally hurting himself. He will not have gain and understand the true meaning of what is being taught by the teacher because he is more focused on the educational gap between the student and teacher. The student needs to able to question everything that is being taught. By using the Socratic method, students will understand topics rather than believing what other people are saying. There needs to be a respectful relationship between the student and teacher. The student respects the teacher and the teacher respects the student equally. This relationship between student and teacher is very important journey of obtaining knowledge. There should be no other kinds of relationship. The only acceptable form is through the connection that they both share as being teacher and being student. Next, the teacher need to responsible for the materials they are covering. They need to be fluent or else the student will have doubts about the material and ultimately the teacher. The more secure the teacher is with his material the more the student will trust the material and the teacher. If a teacher is not confident and prepared, there will be doubts that will be raised in the minds of the student. More importantly, the teacher will need to care about the student and guide them towards their goal. All teachers need to know when to step aside so that the student can make progress and help the student up when he fails. The most beneficial qualities of an excellent teacher are the ability to care for the student and the encouragement teachers provide for the students. Teachers are just an extension of parents; caring and encouragement are two characteristics of parents. The next important element in a perfect educational institution, is the curriculum. There needs to be a flexible curriculum that accommodates all the different intellectual abilities of all the students. Not all the students will have the same learning capabilities. Some students may have a learning disability and others may be genuinely intelligent. The curriculum is strict but still is flexible enough to accommodate each individual student. The actual courses need to be comprehensive. The subjects being studied needs to be updated constantly by the teachers. A perfect institution will have all area of studies accessible to the students. Any particular major or subject will be left to the students to decide. When they do decide what they want to study, there will be the necessary courses to cover that major. In order for a student to pass a course, he needs to be able to teach the information he learned in that course. This teaching method is very important. If a student is able to teach something then that student truly understands it. This method of testing the knowledge of the student should be the final examination for every course. This method is more valid than the constant â€Å"question and answer† method being used today, which promotes temporarily memorization. The next ingredient in a perfect institution is the actual environment itself. Their surrounding influences many people. An intellectual community needs to look like an intellectual community. It will be located in an area, which is safe. The students need to feel comfortable. A comfortable learning environment leads to the success of the students. There should be no distractions that will keep the student from learning. With all of these characteristics, the student’s should be able to concentrate on obtaining their education. Though the task of creating and maintaining a perfect institution is a difficult task, it can be created. People need to come together with this structure and guideline in mind. The educated ones need to continue to educate others. This realization is extremely important to future students. Educated people need to think of the future and society as a whole. They need to help educate others, just as others, educated them. If all of these characteristics are met in an institution, then that institution can be labeled, â€Å"perfect How to cite The Purpose of Education, Papers

Open Flow Essay Example

Open Flow Essay Load Balancing Surya Prateek Surampalli Information Technology Department, Southern Polytechnic State University [emailprotected] edu Abstract—in high-traffic Internet today, it is often desirable to have multiple servers that represent a single logical destination server to share the load. A typical configuration comprises multiple servers behind a load balancer that would determine which server would serve the request of a client. Such equipment is expensive, has a rigid set of rules, and is a single point of failure. In this paper, I propose an idea and design for an alternative load-balancing architecture with the help of an OpenFlow switch connected to a NOX controller that gains political flexibility, less expensive, and has the potential to be more robust to failure with future generations of switches I. Introduction In today’s increasingly internet-based cloud services, a client sends a request to URL or a logical server and receives a response from a potentially multiple servers acts as a logical address server. Google server is said to be the best example, the request is sent to server farm as soon as the client resolves the IP address from the URL [1]. Load balancers are expensive that acts as a reverse proxy and distributes network or application traffic across a number of servers. Load balancers are used to increase capacity (concurrent users) and reliability of applications. They improve the overall performance of applications by decreasing the burden on servers associated with managing and maintaining application and network sessions, as well as by performing application-specific tasks [1]. We will write a custom essay sample on Open Flow specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Open Flow specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Open Flow specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Since load balancers are not basic equipment and run custom software, policies are rigid in their choices. Specific administrators are required and also the arbitrary policies are not possible to implement. Since running policy and the switch are connected it is reduced to a single point of failure [2]. The order of magnitude will cost less than a commercial load-balancer if architecture with an OpenFlow switch is implemented which is controlled by the commodity server and also provides flexibility for writing patterns which allow the controller to be applied arbitrary political [1]. If the next generation of OpenFlow switches has the capability of connecting to multiple controllers, there is a chance of making the system much robust to abortion by keeping the any server behind the which that acts as the controller [1]. II. Background A. Load Balancing Load balancing helps make networks more efficient. It distributes the processing and traffic evenly across a network, making sure no single device is overwhelmed [1]. Web servers, as in the example above, often use load balancing to evenly split the traffic load among several different servers. This allows them to use the available bandwidth more effectively, and therefore provides faster access to the websites they host [3]. Whether load balancing is done on a local network or a large Web server, it requires hardware or software that divides incoming traffic among the available servers. Networks that receive high amounts of traffic may even have one or more servers dedicated to balancing the load among the other servers and devices in the network. These servers are often called (not surprisingly) load balancers [1]. Load balancing can be performed using dedicated hardware devices such as load balancers or having intelligent DNS servers. A DNS server can redirect traffic data centre with a heavy load or redirect requests made by customers for a data centre that is less network stretches from clients. Many data centres use of expensive hardware load balancing equipment that makes in distributing the network traffic across multiple machines to avoid congestion on a server. A DNS server resolves a hostname to a single IP address where the client sends the request. To the outside world there is a logical address that resolves a host name [3]. This IP address is not associated with a single machine, but is the type of service a client request. DNS can resolve a host name to a load balancer within a data centre. But this could be avoided for safety reasons and to avoid attacks on the device. When a client request comes to the load balancer, the request is redirected according to the policy. B. OpenFlow Switch An OpenFlow switch is a software program or hardware device that forwards packets in a software-defined networking (SDN) environment. OpenFlow switches are either based on the OpenFlow protocol or compatible with it [1]. In a conventional switch, packet forwarding (the data plane) and high-level routing (the control plane) occur on the same device. In software-defined networking, the data plane is decoupled from the control plane. The data plane is still implemented in the switch itself but the control plane is implemented in software and a separate SDN controller makes high-level routing decisions. The switch and controller communicate by means of the OpenFlow protocol. The OpenFlow switch on the other hand uses an external controller called NOX to add rules into its flow table. C. NOX Controller NOX is a network control platform, that provides a high-level programmatic interface upon which network management and control applications can be built. In brevity, NOX is an OpenFlow controller [3]. Therefore, NOX applications mainly assert flow-level control of the network meaning that they determine how each flow is routed or not routed in the network. The OpenFlow switch is connected to the NOX controller and communicates over a secure channel using the OpenFlow protocol. The current design of OpenFlow only allows one NOX controller per switch. The NOX controller decides how packets of a new flow should be handled by the switch. When new flows arrive at the switch, the packet gets redirected to the NOX controller which then decides whether the switch should drop the packet or forward it to a machine connected to the switch. The NOX controller can also delete or modify existing flow entries in the switch. The NOX controller can execute modules that describe how a new flow should be handled. This provides us an interface to write C++ modules that dynamically add or delete routing rules into the switch and can use different policies for handling flows. D. Flow Table A flow table entry of an OpenFlow switch consists of a header fields, counters and actions. Each flow table entry stores Ethernet, IP and TCP/UDP header information. This information includes destination/source MAC and IP address and source/destination TCP/UDP port numbers. Each flow table entry also maintains a counter of number of packets, and bytes arrived per flow. A flow table entry can also have one or more action fields that describe how the switch will handle packets that match the flow entry. Some of the actions include sending the packet on all output ports, forwarding the packet on an output port of a particular machine and modifying packet headers (Ethernet, IP and TCP/UDP header). If a flow entry does not have any actions, then the switch drops all packets for the particular flow. Each Flow entry also has an expiration time after which the flow entry is deleted from the flow table. This expiration time is based on the number of seconds a flow was idle and the total amount the time (in seconds) the flow entry has been in the flow table. The NOX controller can chose a flow entry to exist permanently in the flow table or can set timers which delete the flow entry when the timer expires. III. Load-Balancer Design Load balancing architecture comprises an OpenFlow switch with a control device of NOX and server machines connected to output ports of the switch server. The OpenFlow switch uses an interface to connect to the Internet. Each server has a static IP address and NOX controller maintains a list of currently connected to the OpenFlow switch servers. Each server is running web server emulation on a well known port. [pic] Figure1. Load-balancer architecture using OpenFlow switch and NOX controller The hostname of server to IP address is resolved by each client and a request is sent to that IP address on the known port number. If you consider the above diagram, when a packet is reached to the switch from the client, the header information of the packet is compared with the entries of the flow table. If the header information of the packet corresponds to an inlet of the flow, the counter for the number of packets, the byte count is incremented, and the actions associated with the input of the flow are performed on the packet. If no match is found, the switch forwards the packet to NOX. NOX decides how the packet for this flow should be handled by the switch. NOX and then inserts a new article in the cash flow of the switch using the OpenFlow protocol. To achieve load-balancing features, the modules should be written in C++ that is executed by NOX controller. NOX should perform the function of handle () when a new flow arrives at the switch. This function sets the load balancing policy and adds new rules in the flow table of the switch. All client requests should be destined for the same IP address, then whatever the module is executed by NOX, should add rules for each flow which can modify the destination MAC and IP address of the packet with a server’s MAC and IP address. The switch will forward the packet to the server output port after modifying the packet header. When servers return a packet to the client, the module adds an entry flow that changes the source IP address with the IP address of the host that the client sends its request. So the client should always receive packets from the same IP address. If the client connection / server connection is closed or remains idle for 10 seconds, then the inactivity timer expires causing the input stream to be deleted from the cash flow of the switch. This allows input stream recycling Servers wait for a NOX to register and then report their current load on some schedule similar to the Listener Pattern. NOX in a separate thread listening on a UDP socket for heartbeats with reported by server loads and maintains a table with the current loads of all servers. When applying for a new stream is received, it chooses the server with the lowest and the load current increases to the low current server. This prevents flow of all flows routed to the same server as the server reports a new load. It also breaks ties by turning it into a round robin until the servers report their actual load heartbeat. Flow Algorithm Require: Flow, path 1: sourceHost = LocateSource(flow); 2: destinationHost = LocateDestination(flow); : layer = setToplayer(); 4: currentSwitch = LocateCurrentSwitch(); 5: direction = 1; //upward 6: path = null; //list of switches 7: return search (); This algorithm works as follows. When the OpenFlow controller receives a packet from a switch, it switches the control to the load balancer. Line 1 to 6 introduces the initialization for necessary variables. The load balancer ? rstly a nalyses the packet’s match information including the input port on the switch that receives the packet as well as the packet’s source address and destination address. Then it looks up those addresses using its knowledge about the network topology. Once the source and destination hosts are located, the load balancer calculates the top layer that the ? ow needs to access. We use the search direction ? ag. The ? ag has two values: 1 for upward and 0 for downward. It is initialized to 1. A path is created for saving a route grouped by a list of switches later. Line 7 calls search () that performs the search for paths recursively. In the method search (), It ? rstly adds current switch into path. It returns the path if current search reaches the bottom layer. It reverses the search direction if current search reaches the top layer. Then it calls a method 1: search () { 2: path. add(curSwitch); 4: if isBottomLayer(curSwitch) then 5: return path; 6: end if 7: if curSwitch. getLayer ( ) == layer then 8: direction = 0; //reverse 9: end if 10: links = findLinks(curSwitch, direction); 11: link = findWorstFitLink(links); 12: curSwitch = findNextSwitch(link); 13: return search (); 14:} that returns all links on current switch that are towards current search direction. Only one link is chosen by picking up the worst-? t link with maximum available bandwidth. And then the current switch object is updated. The method search () is called recursively layer by layer from the source to destination. At last the path will be return to the load balancer. The path information will be used for updating ? ow tables of those switches in the path. Flow Scheduling The Flow scheduling functionality works as follows. Each OpenFlow switch maintains its own ? ow table. Whenever any packet comes in, the switch checks the packet’s match information with the entries in its ? ow table. The packet’s match information includes ingressPort, etherType, srcMac, dstMac, vlanID, srcIP, dstIP, IP protocol, T CP/UDP srcPort, TCP/UDP dstPort. If it ? nds a match, it will send out the packet to the corresponding port. Otherwise it will encapsulate the packet in a PACKET IN message and send the message to the controller. As a module of the OpenFlow controller, the load balancer will handle the PACKET IN message. It ? nds a proper path by executing a search with the DLB algorithm described in Algorithm 1. The path is a list of switches from source to destination of the packet. Then the load balancer creates one FLOW MOD message for each switch in the path and sends it to the switch. This message will have the packet’s match information as well as a output port number on that switch. The output port number is directly calculated by the path and network topology. If one switch receives a FLOW MOD message, it will use it to update its ? ow table accordingly. Those packets buffered on ports of that switch may ? nd their matches in the updated ? ow table and be sent out. Otherwise the switch will repeat this process. IV. Future Work The OpenFlow specification includes an optional feature that would allow multiple NOXs to make active connections to the switch. In the case then of the NOX failing, another machine could assume the role of the NOX and continue routing traffic. Naturally the system would need to detect the failure, have a mechanism to remember any state associated with the current policy, and all servers would have to agree on who the new NOX was. These requirements naturally lend themselves to the Paxos consensus algorithm in which policy and leader elections can be held and preserved with provable progress [3]. We have implemented Paxos in another research project and could add it to our server implementation at the controller/signaler layer. As long as at least half of the nodes in the cluster stay up, state will be preserved and traffic should continue to flow. V. Conclusion It is possible to achieve similar functionality to a commercial load balancer switches using only physical commodities. The OpenFlow switch provides the flexibility to implement the arbitrary policy in software and politics separate the switch itself. Since the policy is decoupled from the switch, we can avoid the machine implementation of the policy of a single point of failure and the creation of a more robust system. References [1] OpenFlow Switch Specification. Version 0. 8. 9 (Wire Protocol 0x97). Current maintainer: Brandon Heller ([emailprotected] edu). December 2, 2008. [2] Web caching and Zipf-like distributions: evidence and implications. Breslau, L. Pei Cao Li Fan Phillips, G. Shenker, S. Xerox Palo Alto Res. Center, CA. INFOCOM 1999. [3] Paxos Made Simple. Leslie Lamport [4] M. Al-Fares, A. Loukissas, and A. Vahdat. A Scalable, Commodity Data Center Network Architecture. ACM SIGCOMM, 2008. [5] C. E. Leiserson. Fat-trees: Universal networks for hardware-ef? cient supercomputing. IEEE Transactions on Computers, 1985. [6] T. Benson, A. Anand, A. Akella, and M. Zhang. Understanding Datacenter Traf? c Characteristics. SIGCOMM WREN workshop, 2009. [7] HOPPS, C. Analysis of an Equal-Cost Multi-Path Algorithm. RFC 2992, IETF, 2000. [8] W. J. Dally and B. Towles. Principles and Practices of Interconnection Networks. Morgan Kaufmann Publisher, 2004. [9] S. Kandula, S. Sengupta, A. Greenberg, P. Patel and R. Chaiken. The Nature of Data Center Traf? c: Measurements Analysis. ACM IMC 2009. [10] N. McKeown, T. Anderson, H. Balakrishnan, G. Parulkar, L. Peterson, J. Rexford, S. Shenker, and J. Turner. OpenFlow: Enabling Innovation in Campus Networks. ACM SIGCOMM CCR, 2008. [11] R. N. Mysore, A. Pamporis, N. Farrington, N. Huang, P. Miri, S. Radhakrishnan, V. Subramanya, and A. Vahdat. PortLand: A Scalable, Fault-Tolerant Layer 2 Data Center Network Fabric. ACM SIGCOMM, 2009. [12] Beacon OpenFlow Controller https://OpenFlow. stanford. edu/display/Beacon/Home. [13] B. Lantz, B. Heller, and N. McKeown. A Network in a Laptop: Rapid Prototyping for Software-De? nded Networks. ACM SIGCOMM, 2010. [14] Y. Zhang, H. Kameda, S. L. Hung. Comparison of dynamic and static load-balancing strategies in heterogeneous distributed systems. Computers and Digital Techniques, IEE, 1997. [15] OpenFlow Switch Speci? cation, Version 1. 0. 0. http://www. OpenFlow. org/documents/OpenFlow-spec-v1. 0. 0. pdf. [16] N. Handigol, S. Seetharaman, M. Flajslik, N. McKeown, and R. Johari. Plug-n-Serve: Load-balancing web traf? c using OpenFlow. ACM SIGCOMM Demo, 2009. [17] R. Wang, D. Butnariu, J. Rexford. OpenFlow-Based Server Load Balancing Gone Wild. Hot ICE, 2011. [18] M. Koerner, O. Kao. Multiple service load-balancing with OpenFlow. IEEE HPSR, 2012. Figure 2: Load-Balancer block diagram architecture using OpenFlow switch and NOX controller. Open Flow Essay Example Open Flow Essay Load Balancing Surya Prateek Surampalli Information Technology Department, Southern Polytechnic State University [emailprotected] edu Abstract—in high-traffic Internet today, it is often desirable to have multiple servers that represent a single logical destination server to share the load. A typical configuration comprises multiple servers behind a load balancer that would determine which server would serve the request of a client. Such equipment is expensive, has a rigid set of rules, and is a single point of failure. In this paper, I propose an idea and design for an alternative load-balancing architecture with the help of an OpenFlow switch connected to a NOX controller that gains political flexibility, less expensive, and has the potential to be more robust to failure with future generations of switches I. Introduction In today’s increasingly internet-based cloud services, a client sends a request to URL or a logical server and receives a response from a potentially multiple servers acts as a logical address server. Google server is said to be the best example, the request is sent to server farm as soon as the client resolves the IP address from the URL [1]. Load balancers are expensive that acts as a reverse proxy and distributes network or application traffic across a number of servers. Load balancers are used to increase capacity (concurrent users) and reliability of applications. They improve the overall performance of applications by decreasing the burden on servers associated with managing and maintaining application and network sessions, as well as by performing application-specific tasks [1]. We will write a custom essay sample on Open Flow specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Open Flow specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Open Flow specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Since load balancers are not basic equipment and run custom software, policies are rigid in their choices. Specific administrators are required and also the arbitrary policies are not possible to implement. Since running policy and the switch are connected it is reduced to a single point of failure [2]. The order of magnitude will cost less than a commercial load-balancer if architecture with an OpenFlow switch is implemented which is controlled by the commodity server and also provides flexibility for writing patterns which allow the controller to be applied arbitrary political [1]. If the next generation of OpenFlow switches has the capability of connecting to multiple controllers, there is a chance of making the system much robust to abortion by keeping the any server behind the which that acts as the controller [1]. II. Background A. Load Balancing Load balancing helps make networks more efficient. It distributes the processing and traffic evenly across a network, making sure no single device is overwhelmed [1]. Web servers, as in the example above, often use load balancing to evenly split the traffic load among several different servers. This allows them to use the available bandwidth more effectively, and therefore provides faster access to the websites they host [3]. Whether load balancing is done on a local network or a large Web server, it requires hardware or software that divides incoming traffic among the available servers. Networks that receive high amounts of traffic may even have one or more servers dedicated to balancing the load among the other servers and devices in the network. These servers are often called (not surprisingly) load balancers [1]. Load balancing can be performed using dedicated hardware devices such as load balancers or having intelligent DNS servers. A DNS server can redirect traffic data centre with a heavy load or redirect requests made by customers for a data centre that is less network stretches from clients. Many data centres use of expensive hardware load balancing equipment that makes in distributing the network traffic across multiple machines to avoid congestion on a server. A DNS server resolves a hostname to a single IP address where the client sends the request. To the outside world there is a logical address that resolves a host name [3]. This IP address is not associated with a single machine, but is the type of service a client request. DNS can resolve a host name to a load balancer within a data centre. But this could be avoided for safety reasons and to avoid attacks on the device. When a client request comes to the load balancer, the request is redirected according to the policy. B. OpenFlow Switch An OpenFlow switch is a software program or hardware device that forwards packets in a software-defined networking (SDN) environment. OpenFlow switches are either based on the OpenFlow protocol or compatible with it [1]. In a conventional switch, packet forwarding (the data plane) and high-level routing (the control plane) occur on the same device. In software-defined networking, the data plane is decoupled from the control plane. The data plane is still implemented in the switch itself but the control plane is implemented in software and a separate SDN controller makes high-level routing decisions. The switch and controller communicate by means of the OpenFlow protocol. The OpenFlow switch on the other hand uses an external controller called NOX to add rules into its flow table. C. NOX Controller NOX is a network control platform, that provides a high-level programmatic interface upon which network management and control applications can be built. In brevity, NOX is an OpenFlow controller [3]. Therefore, NOX applications mainly assert flow-level control of the network meaning that they determine how each flow is routed or not routed in the network. The OpenFlow switch is connected to the NOX controller and communicates over a secure channel using the OpenFlow protocol. The current design of OpenFlow only allows one NOX controller per switch. The NOX controller decides how packets of a new flow should be handled by the switch. When new flows arrive at the switch, the packet gets redirected to the NOX controller which then decides whether the switch should drop the packet or forward it to a machine connected to the switch. The NOX controller can also delete or modify existing flow entries in the switch. The NOX controller can execute modules that describe how a new flow should be handled. This provides us an interface to write C++ modules that dynamically add or delete routing rules into the switch and can use different policies for handling flows. D. Flow Table A flow table entry of an OpenFlow switch consists of a header fields, counters and actions. Each flow table entry stores Ethernet, IP and TCP/UDP header information. This information includes destination/source MAC and IP address and source/destination TCP/UDP port numbers. Each flow table entry also maintains a counter of number of packets, and bytes arrived per flow. A flow table entry can also have one or more action fields that describe how the switch will handle packets that match the flow entry. Some of the actions include sending the packet on all output ports, forwarding the packet on an output port of a particular machine and modifying packet headers (Ethernet, IP and TCP/UDP header). If a flow entry does not have any actions, then the switch drops all packets for the particular flow. Each Flow entry also has an expiration time after which the flow entry is deleted from the flow table. This expiration time is based on the number of seconds a flow was idle and the total amount the time (in seconds) the flow entry has been in the flow table. The NOX controller can chose a flow entry to exist permanently in the flow table or can set timers which delete the flow entry when the timer expires. III. Load-Balancer Design Load balancing architecture comprises an OpenFlow switch with a control device of NOX and server machines connected to output ports of the switch server. The OpenFlow switch uses an interface to connect to the Internet. Each server has a static IP address and NOX controller maintains a list of currently connected to the OpenFlow switch servers. Each server is running web server emulation on a well known port. [pic] Figure1. Load-balancer architecture using OpenFlow switch and NOX controller The hostname of server to IP address is resolved by each client and a request is sent to that IP address on the known port number. If you consider the above diagram, when a packet is reached to the switch from the client, the header information of the packet is compared with the entries of the flow table. If the header information of the packet corresponds to an inlet of the flow, the counter for the number of packets, the byte count is incremented, and the actions associated with the input of the flow are performed on the packet. If no match is found, the switch forwards the packet to NOX. NOX decides how the packet for this flow should be handled by the switch. NOX and then inserts a new article in the cash flow of the switch using the OpenFlow protocol. To achieve load-balancing features, the modules should be written in C++ that is executed by NOX controller. NOX should perform the function of handle () when a new flow arrives at the switch. This function sets the load balancing policy and adds new rules in the flow table of the switch. All client requests should be destined for the same IP address, then whatever the module is executed by NOX, should add rules for each flow which can modify the destination MAC and IP address of the packet with a server’s MAC and IP address. The switch will forward the packet to the server output port after modifying the packet header. When servers return a packet to the client, the module adds an entry flow that changes the source IP address with the IP address of the host that the client sends its request. So the client should always receive packets from the same IP address. If the client connection / server connection is closed or remains idle for 10 seconds, then the inactivity timer expires causing the input stream to be deleted from the cash flow of the switch. This allows input stream recycling Servers wait for a NOX to register and then report their current load on some schedule similar to the Listener Pattern. NOX in a separate thread listening on a UDP socket for heartbeats with reported by server loads and maintains a table with the current loads of all servers. When applying for a new stream is received, it chooses the server with the lowest and the load current increases to the low current server. This prevents flow of all flows routed to the same server as the server reports a new load. It also breaks ties by turning it into a round robin until the servers report their actual load heartbeat. Flow Algorithm Require: Flow, path 1: sourceHost = LocateSource(flow); 2: destinationHost = LocateDestination(flow); : layer = setToplayer(); 4: currentSwitch = LocateCurrentSwitch(); 5: direction = 1; //upward 6: path = null; //list of switches 7: return search (); This algorithm works as follows. When the OpenFlow controller receives a packet from a switch, it switches the control to the load balancer. Line 1 to 6 introduces the initialization for necessary variables. The load balancer ? rstly a nalyses the packet’s match information including the input port on the switch that receives the packet as well as the packet’s source address and destination address. Then it looks up those addresses using its knowledge about the network topology. Once the source and destination hosts are located, the load balancer calculates the top layer that the ? ow needs to access. We use the search direction ? ag. The ? ag has two values: 1 for upward and 0 for downward. It is initialized to 1. A path is created for saving a route grouped by a list of switches later. Line 7 calls search () that performs the search for paths recursively. In the method search (), It ? rstly adds current switch into path. It returns the path if current search reaches the bottom layer. It reverses the search direction if current search reaches the top layer. Then it calls a method 1: search () { 2: path. add(curSwitch); 4: if isBottomLayer(curSwitch) then 5: return path; 6: end if 7: if curSwitch. getLayer ( ) == layer then 8: direction = 0; //reverse 9: end if 10: links = findLinks(curSwitch, direction); 11: link = findWorstFitLink(links); 12: curSwitch = findNextSwitch(link); 13: return search (); 14:} that returns all links on current switch that are towards current search direction. Only one link is chosen by picking up the worst-? t link with maximum available bandwidth. And then the current switch object is updated. The method search () is called recursively layer by layer from the source to destination. At last the path will be return to the load balancer. The path information will be used for updating ? ow tables of those switches in the path. Flow Scheduling The Flow scheduling functionality works as follows. Each OpenFlow switch maintains its own ? ow table. Whenever any packet comes in, the switch checks the packet’s match information with the entries in its ? ow table. The packet’s match information includes ingressPort, etherType, srcMac, dstMac, vlanID, srcIP, dstIP, IP protocol, T CP/UDP srcPort, TCP/UDP dstPort. If it ? nds a match, it will send out the packet to the corresponding port. Otherwise it will encapsulate the packet in a PACKET IN message and send the message to the controller. As a module of the OpenFlow controller, the load balancer will handle the PACKET IN message. It ? nds a proper path by executing a search with the DLB algorithm described in Algorithm 1. The path is a list of switches from source to destination of the packet. Then the load balancer creates one FLOW MOD message for each switch in the path and sends it to the switch. This message will have the packet’s match information as well as a output port number on that switch. The output port number is directly calculated by the path and network topology. If one switch receives a FLOW MOD message, it will use it to update its ? ow table accordingly. Those packets buffered on ports of that switch may ? nd their matches in the updated ? ow table and be sent out. Otherwise the switch will repeat this process. IV. Future Work The OpenFlow specification includes an optional feature that would allow multiple NOXs to make active connections to the switch. In the case then of the NOX failing, another machine could assume the role of the NOX and continue routing traffic. Naturally the system would need to detect the failure, have a mechanism to remember any state associated with the current policy, and all servers would have to agree on who the new NOX was. These requirements naturally lend themselves to the Paxos consensus algorithm in which policy and leader elections can be held and preserved with provable progress [3]. We have implemented Paxos in another research project and could add it to our server implementation at the controller/signaler layer. As long as at least half of the nodes in the cluster stay up, state will be preserved and traffic should continue to flow. V. Conclusion It is possible to achieve similar functionality to a commercial load balancer switches using only physical commodities. The OpenFlow switch provides the flexibility to implement the arbitrary policy in software and politics separate the switch itself. Since the policy is decoupled from the switch, we can avoid the machine implementation of the policy of a single point of failure and the creation of a more robust system. References [1] OpenFlow Switch Specification. Version 0. 8. 9 (Wire Protocol 0x97). Current maintainer: Brandon Heller ([emailprotected] edu). December 2, 2008. [2] Web caching and Zipf-like distributions: evidence and implications. Breslau, L. Pei Cao Li Fan Phillips, G. Shenker, S. Xerox Palo Alto Res. Center, CA. INFOCOM 1999. [3] Paxos Made Simple. Leslie Lamport [4] M. Al-Fares, A. Loukissas, and A. Vahdat. A Scalable, Commodity Data Center Network Architecture. ACM SIGCOMM, 2008. [5] C. E. Leiserson. Fat-trees: Universal networks for hardware-ef? cient supercomputing. IEEE Transactions on Computers, 1985. [6] T. Benson, A. Anand, A. Akella, and M. Zhang. Understanding Datacenter Traf? c Characteristics. SIGCOMM WREN workshop, 2009. [7] HOPPS, C. Analysis of an Equal-Cost Multi-Path Algorithm. RFC 2992, IETF, 2000. [8] W. J. Dally and B. Towles. Principles and Practices of Interconnection Networks. Morgan Kaufmann Publisher, 2004. [9] S. Kandula, S. Sengupta, A. Greenberg, P. Patel and R. Chaiken. The Nature of Data Center Traf? c: Measurements Analysis. ACM IMC 2009. [10] N. McKeown, T. Anderson, H. Balakrishnan, G. Parulkar, L. Peterson, J. Rexford, S. Shenker, and J. Turner. OpenFlow: Enabling Innovation in Campus Networks. ACM SIGCOMM CCR, 2008. [11] R. N. Mysore, A. Pamporis, N. Farrington, N. Huang, P. Miri, S. Radhakrishnan, V. Subramanya, and A. Vahdat. PortLand: A Scalable, Fault-Tolerant Layer 2 Data Center Network Fabric. ACM SIGCOMM, 2009. [12] Beacon OpenFlow Controller https://OpenFlow. stanford. edu/display/Beacon/Home. [13] B. Lantz, B. Heller, and N. McKeown. A Network in a Laptop: Rapid Prototyping for Software-De? nded Networks. ACM SIGCOMM, 2010. [14] Y. Zhang, H. Kameda, S. L. Hung. Comparison of dynamic and static load-balancing strategies in heterogeneous distributed systems. Computers and Digital Techniques, IEE, 1997. [15] OpenFlow Switch Speci? cation, Version 1. 0. 0. http://www. OpenFlow. org/documents/OpenFlow-spec-v1. 0. 0. pdf. [16] N. Handigol, S. Seetharaman, M. Flajslik, N. McKeown, and R. Johari. Plug-n-Serve: Load-balancing web traf? c using OpenFlow. ACM SIGCOMM Demo, 2009. [17] R. Wang, D. Butnariu, J. Rexford. OpenFlow-Based Server Load Balancing Gone Wild. Hot ICE, 2011. [18] M. Koerner, O. Kao. Multiple service load-balancing with OpenFlow. IEEE HPSR, 2012. Figure 2: Load-Balancer block diagram architecture using OpenFlow switch and NOX controller.

Theory of Knowledge Essays

Theory of Knowledge Essays Theory of Knowledge Essay Theory of Knowledge Essay Everyone from all society is related to a belief, to God or others that is believed to have higher power than humans. This technically means that everyone was born believing the existence of afterlife or superiors. I will focus this presentation on the existence of God as the Creator, and the judge on our afterlife. Humans have a unique ability to pass knowledge down to the next generation; it is a very important skill for an advancement of life, and technology. For example we dont have to test how acid can burn the skin off because it has become a knowledge passed by an authority. Biases in approach to knowledge: We live in the world that is biased in approaching to the knowledge by conviction, such as religions and beliefs. I am hat no one in this world can claim that they are skeptics and atheists to the bone. They would have doubt about the existence of God, what will happen afterlife and I am infact almost certain that if there is a plane filled with the most well known skeptics and atheists, and the plane is crashing down these people would shout out, God, Help us etc. This happens because we live in the world that has obligation, ideals and a strong belief that God do exist. This then is passed to us in our early days and we subconsciously believe and graciously accepted these beliefs. Our brain works and memorizes at almost all the time, In our head we can easily produce an image of an angel, a handsome or a really pretty girl inside a brilliant white robe surrounded by magnificent light. But in this world, who has ever seen an angel in their life? This is a simple example on how we have been influenced without us noticing. If angels do exist and they happen to be an old lady with a broomstick then maybe we have burnt a couple of them in the past. And if witches do rest with a pretty face and keep wearing a white clothing rather than being gothic chances are we will praise them as an angel. Possible Uncertainties: Religions and beliefs are also passed down from generation to generation, there are a lot of beliefs in this world most of these spiritual beliefs rested on an unstable foundation which is shaking as our race advance even further. All these spiritual beliefs have the same reasoning, the same pattern! Because I personally believe that these religions and beliefs are all attempts on explaining of what is going on around the civilization at the time. These attempts are usually written, and used as a guidance on how to lead a proper life at the time. This written explanation and thesis are then classified as the holy book for the religion. The Bible for the Christian, Al-Quran for the Moslems and some that is not named. Some of the common things found with these religions and spiritual beliefs are a legitimately higher power, a happy ending for believer, a bad ending for those who goes against it. If we use our logic for justification combined with empirical evidence it is clear that these beliefs are shortcuts in getting people to do the right thing! If you are a thief, you will go to hell, if you kill, you will go to hell, if you do bad things you will go to hell, on the other hand you be good you go to heaven! To even further attract believers. The term heaven is modified in a couple of way, in Christianity you get to see Jesus Christ and sit next to God, in the case of Vikings in heaven or what they call Valhalla, warriors that gets there will be able to fight all they want and kill however they please. Sounds like a terrible heaven yet attractive to these Vikings. I dont have any idea on what hell would be for the Vikings, perhaps it is a peaceful quiet place where there is no argument! As you can see heaven and hell is modified to an extent it is loved and hated by the civilization this is a simple yet valid proof that these spiritual beliefs are made for a purpose. These hypotheses on how the world was created has advance over time too. Let us see one of our oldest civilizations in the world and their beliefs. The aborigines have a less complex and a rather simple way of explaining how the world was created in comparison with Christians, Islamic and Jewish Orthodoxy way of explaining the creation of the world. This I believe is due to the fact that the level of knowledge has changed over the time. The faithful believers may say that they have proofs; I can recall that when I was still in my fifth grade, I argued with a priest and she told me all these miracles that God has done in the past, My best approach on this is that the people at biblical time have mistakenly regard natural phenomenon and disaster as Gods action. The Chinese sacrifice children to save their village from angry demons or God, The Mayans sacrifice to please the God, or as a thanksgiving. Another set of evidence can also derive from the Noahs arc which is believed by the Jewish, the Moslems and the Christians. The Chinese and Greeks have a traditional folklore explaining such an event of big flood? This shows that a big flood did happen and all civilizations tried to explain it. Noahs journey could very well be true but of course the story in the bible is not true. Because the Chinese and the Greeks have lived it through, maybe the bibles saying on how the world was wiped out would be a truthful account for the Jewish civilizations. Enough with the empirical evidence, lets try the logical way of approaching this problem. In the bible almost at a constant time God interfere and show his greatness through his miracles and curses but I have never stopped wondering why a world with 6 Billions population and a communication and media capability such as today do not have reports on miracles nor curses? Limitation of Knowledge: With these faith and beliefs in our society our it slows down the society to improve to the next level. Beliefs and faith into a prehistoric time hypothesis has been an obstacle into advancement of knowledge. Especially noting that these hypotheses came with a threat of eternal torture and pain. The believers would tend to take everything for granted, they will lose their sense of curiosity, and they stop looking for imperfections, the causes because they believe to an extent where they readily say the term know This close-minded approach has destroyed and limits our advancement of knowledge. In some cases truths are denied and hypotheses are seen as a controversy or as an insult to God or the beliefs. In the old Europe Religions have final authority in science, for centuries Europeans believed that the earth was the center of the universe and the Sun revolved around it, this is based on Aristotle finding that is approved by the belief of that civilization. Copernicus found a more truthful planetary structure of our solar system but he has avoided controversy and expose his findings on his deathbed. Galilei supports this thesis as a factual, and caused investigation by the Inquisition. It is almost 250 years later, in the 1850s that another big opposition by science on religion comes out, this is when Charles Darwin brought in his Theory of evolution. And when we think that the resistance by beliefs and religions has stopped, in 1925 a court case was brought up against John T. Scopes a biology teacher that wanted to teach Darwins theory of evolution, Scopes lost the case and was fined $100 his last words were quoted as follow. Today it is the public-school teachers, tomorrow the private, the next day the preachers and the lecturers, the magazines, the books, the newspapers. After a while, Your Honour it is the setting of a man against man and creed against creed until with flying banners and beating drums, we are marching backward to the glorious ages of the sixteenth century when bigots lighted fagots to burn the men who dared to bring any intelligence and enlightenment and culture to the human mind. Our perception has been shaped since we were young, and has developed within a society that has strong belief of existence of God. It is very hard to change, and even if we can change our perception and beliefs, it takes time and to completely wipe off these spiritual beliefs from our world will take generations and generations. Religions, spiritual beliefs, they have made mistakes, and they will make mistakes again the biggest questions that arise from this is Do we still have to believe it? When will we stop believing it? Only time will answer this question, even though I will not be able to live to see it, I am sure we will one day become a society that justify with logic, and empirical evidence! I am certain that we will be able to be perfect rationalists and live in harmony.

Writing Tips How to Use Block Quotes

Writing Tips How to Use Block Quotes Writing Tips: How to Use Block Quotes Quoting sources is crucial in academic writing. It shows you’ve read up on your subject. It also lets you back up arguments with evidence and ideas from other people. But if you’re quoting a long passage of text, there are rules you need to follow to make sure your work is presented correctly. That’s why we’ve prepared this handy guide on how (and when) to use block quotes. What are Block Quotes? Block quotes are longer passages of quoted text that have been set apart from your own writing. This ensures that the reader does not confuse the quoted text with your own writing. A block quote. When Should I Use a Block Quote? Generally speaking, block quotes should be used sparingly. This is particularly true in academic writing, since you need to show you can express your ideas in your own words. However, quoting a longer passage now and then is fine, especially if your arguments rely on how something is worded (e.g., when analyzing a literary text). A good rule of thumb is using a block quote for quotations that are more than 40 words long. If you’re using a particular style guide, though, it might have specific guidelines. For example: System Length Required for Block Quote APA 40 or more words MLA Four or more lines Chicago Five or more lines How to Present Block Quotes The exact rules for formatting block quotes may depend on the style guide you’re using (always make sure to check if you’re not sure). However, there are a few guidelines that apply in most cases: Start the block quote on a new line (typically after a colon or comma) Indent the block of text from the left margin (usually by around half an inch) Don’t use quote marks, but cite the source as usual Indent the first line of each paragraph after the first if quoting more than one After the block quote, simply resume your own text on a new line with standard formatting.

The future status of English as the global language is assured Essay

The future status of English as the global language is assured - Essay Example As mentioned above, English is one of the fastest growing languages of world that adopts thousands of new words to embellish its vocabulary. It is this changing nature that prevents many from getting mastery over this language, which may be a real threat to its global status. Despite such a global reach, English is also susceptible to forces of language fragmentation or even disappearance altogether. Some of the linguists have observed that an increase in the democratization of governments will reduce the use of English globally. This is because it relegates the status of the political elite who are chiefly the speakers of non-native English. This downgrading of the English language has already occurred with the advent of independence in the post world war two eras in countries such as Tanzania, Philippines, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. Another notable factor concerned with English in India is that the employment of English in the business and educational fields is reducing, especially wi th the recent introduction of a key business newspaper entirely written in Hindi. Furthermore, the rapid growth in Indian higher education will lead to an influx of citizens who speak Hindi or another vernacular language thus lessening the number of citizens who can speak in English. The problem of translation the English become a vital issue in third world nations and people in these nations have often faced difficulties in translating English works in to their native language. This issue often questions the universal acceptability of English language as a Global language and it also reveal the fact that in future the status of English language as a Global language is not assured. The problem is visible in both literature and communication. Many other world languages have been receiving in third world nations without any practical problems and one can find the fact that their translation is

Principles of Marketing Bachelor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Principles of Marketing Bachelor - Essay Example (Porter, 1985) This can be defined as what must be sacrificed or given up by one party in an exchange inorder to obtain another item from the other party. Price means a variety of things to a number of people. The first view is the consumers view. He does not just consider price in monetary terms i.e. what he must pay to get a good or service, but he also considers the time he has to spend to fully utilise the product. This implies that all the trouble he has to undergo before he can derive utility from the product is considered as a price. While the seller considers price in a positive sense in that it is a reflection of the amount of revenue he is getting. It is also seen as a prerequisite to profit. It is also an important marketing aid for organisations. This is because marketers can use their prices as a tool to advertise or promote their wares. There are a number of factors that need to be considered by the marketer when making pricing decisions. This is because it is not just the final consumer who will make contact with his product. Taking an example of a book sold online - the publisher must consider wholesalers, retailers and even resellers because these groups of people will substantially affect his final income. (Hunger, 2003) The main idea behind any price decision is to strike a balance between satisfying the customer's needs while at the same time making profit for the organisation. It should be remembered that price is proportional to innovation. This is because creativity adds value and thus allows the company to raise its price. Besides this fact, a marketer should also incorporate a company's objectives - what does the company want to gain from sale of a product or service. Allowances and discounts need to be integrated too be cause they cause a substantial decrease in sale of the product. If a product is new to the market, it must have a lower price to lure consumers. This is what is called tactful introductory pricing. In addition, a marketer needs to consider geographical factors when setting his price. The product may have to travel long distances from its place of manufacture. Lastly, prices should be flexible at all times. It must reflect both internal and external market forces and these are very dynamic factors. Place -distribution channels Distribution channels include all the people between the consumer and the supplier that are involved in the exchange of services or products. The activities integrated in distribution range from storage, ordering, shipping, promotion, displaying, feedback and selling. In this channelling process there are usually two broad categories i.e. firms specialised in channels and resellers. Resellers are those groups that take over ownership of products from the marketer and sell these to others. Resellers may come in form of a network or may simply be on their own. Examples of resellers include retailers, wholesalers and industrial distributors. Speciality firms provide help with the sale of an item but do not necessarily buy the item. Some of them may be brokers or agents who bring sellers and buyers in concert after a certain charge. Other speciality firms are distribution service firms who help in storage, transportation or other activities that involve